 Subjects -> ELECTRONICS (Total: 207 journals)
| A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z | | The end of the list has been reached or no journals were found for your choice. |
|
|
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 83: Construction of CoNi2S4@Ni(OH)2 Nanosheet
Structures for Asymmetric Supercapacitors with Excellent Performance
Authors: Yongli Tong, Baoqian Chi, Yu Jiang, Xiang Wu
First page: 83
Abstract: It is crucial for energy storage devices to construct electrode materials with excellent performance. However, enhancing energy density and cycling stability for supercapacitors is a significant challenge. We successfully synthesized CoNi2S4@Ni(OH)2 nanosheets on the surface of Ni foam substrate by a two-step hydrothermal approach. The obtained products exhibit a remarkable areal capacitance of 1534 F g−1 at a current density of 1 A g−1. Moreover, even after 10,000 cycles, the specific capacitance remains 90% of its initial value, highlighting the exceptional long-term stability and durability. Furthermore, an asymmetric supercapacitor (ASC) device incorporating the CoNi2S4@Ni(OH)2 material shows remarkable electrochemical performance. It delivers an energy density of 58.5 mW h g−1 at a power density of 2700 W kg−1. The outstanding performance mainly arises from the selection of materials, the design of the structure, and the synergistic interaction between the materials. The result suggests that this material holds great potential as an energy storage material.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-20
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030083
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 84: Evaluating the Role of Entropy Change in
Lithium-Ion Battery Electro-Thermal Modelling
Authors: Félix-Antoine LeBel, Pascal Messier, Mathieu Blanchard, João Pedro F. Trovão
First page: 84
Abstract: The accurate estimation of lithium-ion cell internal temperature is crucial for the safe operation of battery packs, especially during high discharge rates, as operating outside the safe temperature range can lead to accelerated degradation or catastrophic failures. Heat generation in lithium-ion cells arises primarily from ohmic losses and entropy change (ΔS), yet the latter remains frequently overlooked in battery modelling. However, the impact of considering or discarding ΔS from electro-thermal modelling remains subject to debate. This research highlights the critical role of ΔS in improving the accuracy of electro-thermal models for lithium-ion batteries, particularly in high-fidelity thermal simulations. It presents a systematic integration, ΔS, into electro-thermal models, leveraging the energetic macroscopic representation (EMR) approach to enhance predictive accuracy, a methodology not previously structured in this manner. This paper addresses this issue by performing a comparative analysis of an electro-thermal model (ETM) with and without ΔS. The findings provide clear insights into the role of entropy in electro-thermal modelling, demonstrating that while entropy change has a minimal impact on electrical behaviour prediction, it plays a crucial role in accurately capturing temperature dynamics, helping define the conditions under which it must be considered in simulations. While entropy can be neglected for coarse heat generation estimation, its inclusion enhances temperature prediction accuracy by up to 4 °C, making it essential for applications requiring precise thermal management. This study offers a detailed analysis of the conditions under which ΔS becomes critical to model accuracy, providing actionable guidance for battery engineers and researchers.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-20
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030084
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 85: A Novel Capacity Estimation Method for
Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on the Adam Algorithm
Authors: Yingying Lian, Dongdong Qiao
First page: 85
Abstract: Accurate estimation of the capacity of lithium-ion batteries is crucial for battery management and secondary utilization, which can ensure the healthy and efficient operation of the battery system. In this paper, we propose multiple machine learning algorithms to estimate the capacity using the incremental capacity (IC) curve features, including the adaptive moment estimation (Adam) model, root mean square propagation (RMSprop) model, and support vector regression (SVR) model. The Kalman filter algorithm is first used to construct the IC curve, and the peak and corresponding voltages correlated with battery life were analyzed and extracted as capacity estimation features. The three models were then used to learn the relationship between aging features and capacity. Finally, the lithium-ion battery cycle aging data were used to validate the capacity estimation performance of the three proposed machine learning models. The results show that the Adam model performs better than the other two models, balancing efficiency and accuracy in the capacity estimation of lithium-ion batteries throughout the entire lifecycle.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-20
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030085
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 86: Prediction of the Remaining Useful Life of
Lithium–Ion Batteries Based on Mode Decomposition and ED-LSTM
Authors: Bingzeng Song, Guangzhao Yue, Dong Guo, Hanming Wu, Yonghai Sun, Yuhua Li, Bin Zhou
First page: 86
Abstract: The prediction of remaining useful life (RUL) of lithium–ion batteries is key to the reliability assessment of batteries and affects safe application of batteries. This article introduces a CEEMDAN-RF-MHA-ED-LSTM method. Using CEEMDAN, the battery capacity data were decomposed to obtain intrinsic mode functions (IMFs), and the weight of each IMF was obtained via the random forest (RF) algorithm. The LSTM neural network was used, the encoder–decoder (ED) structure was introduced, the multi-head attention (MHA) mechanism was used to construct a network model, and the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm was used to optimize the model parameters. Each IMF was input into the model, and the obtained forecast results were weighted and reconstructed to obtain the final forecast data. This method was validated on the battery dataset released by NASA. Compared with that of the single LSTM model, the mean absolute error of the proposed method decreases by 74%, 62%, 71%, and 55% on the No. 05, 06, 07, and 18th battery datasets, respectively. The root mean square error decreased by 72%, 59%, 70%, and 54%, and the mean absolute percent error decreased by 75%, 65%, 71%, and 58%, respectively. This method can accurately predict battery RUL.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-21
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030086
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 87: Air-Outlet and Step-Number Effects on a
Step-like Plenum Battery’s Thermal Management System
Authors: Olanrewaju M. Oyewola, Emmanuel T. Idowu, Morakinyo J. Labiran, Michael C. Hatfield, Mebougna L. Drabo
First page: 87
Abstract: Optimizing the control of the battery temperature (Tb), while minimizing the pressure drop (∆P) in air-cooled thermal management systems (TMSs), is an indispensable target for researchers. The Z-type battery thermal management system’s (BTMS’s) structure is one of the widely investigated air-cooled TMSs. Several designs of air-cooled BTMSs are often associated with the drawback of a rise in ∆P, consequently resulting in an increase in pumping costs. In this study, the investigation of a step-like plenum design was extended by exploring one and two outlets to determine possible decreases in the maximum battery temperature (Tmax), maximum battery temperature difference (∆Tmax), and pressure drop (∆P). The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method was employed to predict the performances of different designs. The designs combine step-like plenum and two outlets, with the outlets located at different points on the BTMS. The results from the study revealed that using a one-outlet design, combined with a step-like plenum design, reduced Tmax by 3.52 K when compared with that of the original Z-type system. For another design with two outlets and the same step-like plenum design, a reduction in Tmax by 3.45 K was achieved. For ∆Tmax, the use of a two-outlet design and a step-like plenum design achieved a reduction of 6.34 K. Considering the ∆P performance, the best- and poorest-performing designs with two outlets reduced ∆P by 5.91 Pa and 3.66 Pa, respectively, when compared with that of the original Z-type design. The performances of the designs in this study clearly show the potential of two-outlet designs in reducing ∆P in systems. This study, therefore, concludes that the operational cost of the step-like plenum Z-type BTMS can be reduced through the careful positioning of the two-outlet section, which will promote the design and development of current and future electric vehicle (EV) technologies.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-21
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030087
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 88: Electrochemical Studies of Metal
Phthalocyanines as Alternative Cathodes for Aqueous Zinc Batteries in
“Water-in-Salt” Electrolytes
Authors: Wentao Hou, Andres Eduardo Araujo-Correa, Shen Qiu, Crystal Otero Velez, Yamna D. Acosta-Tejada, Lexis N. Feliz-Hernández, Karilys González-Nieves, Gerardo Morell, Dalice M. Piñero Cruz, Xianyong Wu
First page: 88
Abstract: Aqueous zinc batteries are emerging technologies for energy storage, owing to their high safety, high energy, and low cost. Among them, the development of low-cost and long-cycling cathode materials is of crucial importance. Currently, Zn-ion cathodes are heavily centered on metal-based inorganic materials and carbon-based organic materials; however, the metal–organic compounds remain largely overlooked. Herein, we report the electrochemical performance of metal phthalocyanines, a large group of underexplored compounds, as alternative cathode materials for aqueous zinc batteries. We discover that the selection of transition metal plays a vital role in affecting the electrochemical properties. Among them, iron phthalocyanine exhibits the most promising performance, with a reasonable capacity (~60 mAh g−1), a feasible voltage (~1.1 V), and the longest cycling (550 cycles). The optimal performance partly results from the utilization of zinc chloride “water-in-salt” electrolyte, which effectively mitigates material dissolution and enhances battery performance. Consequently, iron phthalocyanine holds promise as an inexpensive and cycle-stable cathode for aqueous zinc batteries.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-22
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030088
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 89: A Review of Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
Based on Metal–Organic Frameworks: Progress and Prospects
Authors: Qiancheng Zhu, Weize Sun, Hua Zhou, Deyu Mao
First page: 89
Abstract: Lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs) are considered candidates for next-generation energy storage systems due to their high theoretical energy density and low cost. However, their practical applications are constrained by the shuttle effect, lithium dendrites, low conductivity, and volume expansion of sulfur. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as promising materials for addressing these challenges, owing to their exceptional adsorption and catalysis capabilities, coupled with a readily adjustable form-factor design. This review provides a broader perspective by comprehensively examining the applications of MOFs in LSBs, covering their roles in cathodes, separators, and electrolytes from multiple dimensions, including their reaction mechanisms, the development potential of MOFs as cathode materials, and the positive impacts on LSBs’ performance achieved through the preparation of MOFs and modifications of intermediate, separator, and electrolyte. Finally, we provide perspectives on future development directions in this field.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-22
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030089
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 90: Solid-State Lithium Batteries: Advances,
Challenges, and Future Perspectives
Authors: Subin Antony Jose, Amethyst Gallant, Pedro Lechuga Gomez, Zacary Jaggers, Evan Johansson, Zachary LaPierre, Pradeep L. Menezes
First page: 90
Abstract: Solid-state lithium-ion batteries are gaining attention as a promising alternative to traditional lithium-ion batteries. By utilizing a solid electrolyte instead of a liquid, these batteries offer the potential for enhanced safety, higher energy density, and longer life cycles. The solid electrolyte typically consists of a polymer matrix integrated with ceramic fillers, which can significantly boost ionic conductivity. Research efforts are currently focused on advancing materials for the battery’s three primary components: the electrolyte, anode, and cathode. Furthermore, innovative strategies are being developed to optimize the interfaces between these components, addressing key challenges in performance and durability. Cutting-edge manufacturing techniques are also being explored to improve production efficiency and reduce costs. With continued advancements, solid-state lithium-ion batteries are poised to become integral to next-generation technologies, including electric vehicles and wearable electronics.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-22
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030090
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 91: Rapid Impedance Measurement of Lithium-Ion
Batteries Under Pulse Ex-Citation and Analysis of Impedance
Characteristics of the Regularization Distributed Relaxation Time
Authors: Haisen Chen, Jinghan Bai, Zhengpu Wu, Ziang Song, Bin Zuo, Chunxia Fu, Yunbin Zhang, Lujun Wang
First page: 91
Abstract: To address the limitations of conventional electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) testing, we propose an efficient rapid EIS testing system. This system utilizes an AC pulse excitation signal combined with an “intelligent fast fourier transform (IFFT) optimization algorithm” to achieve rapid “one-to-many” impedance data measurements. This significantly enhances the speed, flexibility, and practicality of EIS testing. Furthermore, the conventional model-fitting approach for EIS data often struggles to resolve the issue of overlapping impedance arcs within a limited frequency range. To address this, the present study employs the Regularization Distributed Relaxation Time (RDRT) method to process EIS data obtained under AC pulse conditions. This approach avoids the workload and analytical uncertainties associated with assuming equivalent circuit models. Finally, the practical utility of the proposed testing system and the RDRT impedance analysis method is demonstrated through the estimation of battery state of health (SOH). In summary, the method proposed in this study not only addresses the issues associated with conventional EIS data acquisition and analysis but also broadens the methodologies and application scope of EIS impedance testing. This opens up new possibilities for its application in fields such as lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) energy storage.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-27
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030091
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 92: Synthesis and Electrochemical
Characterization of Dissymmetric Tetrathiafulvalene Derivatives for
Aqueous Rechargeable Batteries
Authors: João F. G. Rodrigues, Isabel C. Santos, Sandra Rabaça, Diogo M. F. Santos
First page: 92
Abstract: Organic electroactive materials (OEMs) offer advantages such as cost-effectiveness, environmental sustainability, and simplified end-of-life processing compared to inorganic electrode materials. Aqueous electrolytes further enhance sustainability and safety relative to organic electrolytes. Investigating the electrochemical properties of OEMs in aqueous media provides valuable insights into their redox behavior and stability under such conditions. However, challenges remain, including low electronic conductivity and structural stability concerns, while aqueous rechargeable batteries (ARBs) face inherent energy density limitations. Tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) has been previously reported as an electrode material for ARBs, while its oligomers have been proposed for organic electrolyte batteries. This study focuses on the synthesis and characterization of two new dissymmetric TTF derivatives—cyanobenzene tetrathiafulvalene pyrazine (CNB-TTF-Pz) (1) and 4-cyanobenzene tetrathiafulvalene pyrazine (4-CNB-TTF) (2)—as well as one symmetric TTF derivative, dipyrazine tetrathiafulvalene ((Pz)2-TTF) (3). Their electrochemical behavior in aqueous lithium and potassium nitrate electrolytes was systematically characterized using cyclic voltammetry. The study provides insights into the redox properties and electroactivity of these compounds, highlighting challenges related to low electronic conductivity and redox potentials close to the water stability limits. These findings contribute to broadening our understanding of the electrochemical properties of TTF derivatives in aqueous electrolytes and offer a preliminary assessment of their potential application as electrodes for ARBs.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-27
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030092
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 93: A Comprehensive Study of LFP-Based Positive
Electrodes: Process Parameters’ Influence on the Electrochemical
Properties
Authors: Beatriz Arouca Maia, Natália Magalhães, Eunice Cunha, Nuno Correia, Maria Helena Braga, Raquel M. Santos
First page: 93
Abstract: This study explores the preparation of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) electrodes for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), focusing on electrode loadings, dispersion techniques, and drying methods. Using a three-roll mill for LFP slurry dispersion, good electrochemical properties were achieved with loadings of 5–8 mg·cm−2 (0.8–1.2 mAh·cm−2 areal capacity). Adding polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) during the final milling stage reduced performance due to premature solidification in-between rolls. Vacuum-free drying improved ionic conductivity, stability against lithium metal, and discharge capacity, whereas vacuum-dried samples exhibited higher initial resistance and lower capacity retention. These findings highlight critical parameters for enhancing LFP electrode performance, paving the way for high-performance, and sustainable energy-storage solutions.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-27
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030093
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 94: High-Volume Battery Recycling: Technical
Review of Challenges and Future Directions
Authors: Sheikh Rehman, Maher Al-Greer, Adam S. Burn, Michael Short, Xinjun Cui
First page: 94
Abstract: The growing demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), driven by their use in portable electronics and electric vehicles (EVs), has led to an increasing volume of spent batteries. Effective end-of-life (EoL) management is crucial to mitigate environmental risks and prevent depletion of valuable raw materials like lithium (Li), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), and manganese (Mn). Sustainable, high-volume recycling and material recovery are key to establishing a circular economy in the battery industry. This paper investigates challenges and proposes innovative solutions for high-volume LIB recycling, focusing on automation for large-scale recycling. Key issues include managing variations in battery design, chemistry, and topology, as well as the availability of sustainable raw materials and low-carbon energy sources for the recycling process. The paper presents a comparative study of emerging recycling techniques, including EV battery sorting, dismantling, discharge, and material recovery. With the expected growth in battery volume by 2030 (1.4 million per year by 2040), automation will be essential for efficient waste processing. Understanding the underlying processes in battery recycling is crucial for enabling safe and effective recycling methods. Finally, the paper emphasizes the importance of sustainable LIB recycling in supporting the circular economy. Our proposals aim to overcome these challenges by advancing automation and improving material recovery techniques.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-28
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030094
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 95: Correction: Akram, M.N.; Abdul-Kader, W.
Repurposing Second-Life EV Batteries to Advance Sustainable Development: A
Comprehensive Review. Batteries 2024, 10, 452
Authors: Muhammad Nadeem Akram, Walid Abdul-Kader
First page: 95
Abstract: The authors wish to make the following corrections to their paper [...]
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-03
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030095
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 96: A Comprehensive Model and Experimental
Investigation of Venting Dynamics and Mass Loss in Lithium-Ion Batteries
Under a Thermal Runaway
Authors: Ai Chen, Resul Sahin, Marco Ströbel, Thomas Kottke, Stefan Hecker, Alexander Fill
First page: 96
Abstract: Thermal runaway (TR) has become a critical safety concern with the widespread use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as an energy storage solution to meet the growing global energy demand. This issue has become a significant barrier to the expansion of LIB technologies. Addressing the urgent need for safer LIBs, this study developed a comprehensive model to simulate TR in cylindrical 18650 nickel cobalt manganese (NMC) LIBs. By incorporating experiments with LG®-INR18650-MJ1 cells, the model specifically aimed to accurately predict critical TR parameters, including temperature evolution, internal pressure changes, venting phases, and mass loss dynamics. The simulation closely correlated with experimental outcomes, particularly in replicating double venting mechanisms, gas generation, and the characteristics of mass loss observed during TR events. This study confirmed the feasibility of assuming proportional relationships between gas generation and the cell capacity and between the mass loss from solid particle ejection and the total mass loss, thereby simplifying the modeling of both gas generation and mass loss behaviors in LIBs under TR. Conclusively, the findings advanced the understanding of TR mechanisms in LIBs, providing a solid foundation for future research aimed at mitigating risks and promoting the safe integration of LIBs into sustainable energy solutions.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-03
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030096
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 97: Design and Validation of Anode-Free
Sodium-Ion Pouch Cells Employing Prussian White Cathodes
Authors: Ashley Willow, Marcin Orzech, Sajad Kiani, Nathan Reynolds, Matthew Houchell, Olutimilehin Omisore, Zari Tehrani, Serena Margadonna
First page: 97
Abstract: This study investigated the impact of pouch cell design on energy density, both volumetric and gravimetric, through the development of accurate 3D models of small-format (<5 Ah) pouch cells. Various configurations were analysed, considering material properties and extrapolating expected electrochemical performance from studies on Prussian white cathodes in coin and pouch cells. This approach allowed for a rapid assessment of several performance-influencing factors, including the number of layers in the pouch cell, cathode thickness, active material percentage, and electrolyte volume. The highest calculated energy density of small-format pouch cells was shown to be 282 Wh kg−1 and 454 Wh L−1, achieved in a 3 Ah, 20-layer pouch cell. The calculations were validated using sodium-ion anode-free pouch cells utilising a Prussian white cathode in single- and few-layer format pouch cells (<0.1 Ah) cycled under a low external pressure (~200 kPa).
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-04
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030097
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 98: Exploring the Solubility of Ethylene
Carbonate in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide: A Pathway for Sustainable
Electrolyte Recycling from Li-Ion Batteries
Authors: Nils Zachmann, Claude Cicconardi, Burçak Ebin
First page: 98
Abstract: Ethylene carbonate is, among other applications, used in Li-ion batteries as an electrolyte solvent to dissociate Li-salt. Supercritical CO2 extraction is a promising method for the recycling of electrolyte solvents from spent batteries. To design an extraction process, knowledge of the solute solubility is essential. In this work, the solubility of ethylene carbonate at different pressure (80–160 bar) and temperature (40 °C, and 60 °C) conditions is studied. It is shown that the solubility of ethylene carbonate increased with pressure at both temperatures, ranging from 0.24 to 8.35 g/kg CO2. The retrieved solubility data were fitted using the Chrastil model, and the average equilibrium association number was determined to be 4.46 and 4.02 at 40 °C and 60 °C, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction analysis of the collected ethylene carbonate indicated that the crystal morphology and structure remained unchanged. A proof-of-principle experiment showed that EC can be successfully extracted from Li-ion battery waste at 140 bar and 40 °C.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-04
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030098
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 99: Safety-Critical Influence of Ageing on
Mechanical Properties of Lithium-Ion Pouch Cells
Authors: Gregor Gstrein, Syed Muhammad Abbas, Eduard Ewert, Michael Wenzl, Christian Ellersdorfer
First page: 99
Abstract: While the effect of ageing has been thoroughly analysed, to improve the cycle life of lithium-ion batteries, its impact on safety in case of a mechanical loading is still a new field of research. It has to be found out how mechanical properties, such as the tolerable failure force or deformation, change over the operational lifetime of a battery. To answer this question, mechanical abuse tests were carried out with pouch cells used in recent electric vehicles in a fresh state and after usage over 160.000 km. These tests were complemented with a detailed component level analysis, in order to identify mechanisms that lead to changed cell behaviour. For the analysed aged cells, a significantly different mechanical response was observed in comparison with the respective fresh samples. The tolerable force was severely reduced (up to −27%), accompanied by a notable reduction in the allowable deformation level (up to −15%) prior to failure, making the aged cells clearly more safety critical. Based on the subsequent component tests, the predominant mechanism for this different behaviour was concluded to be particle cracking in the cathode active material. The found results are partly in contrast with the (few) other already published works. It is, however, unclear if this difference is rooted in different cell chemistries or types, or another battery state resulting from varying ageing procedures. This underlies the importance of further investigations in this research field to close the apparent gap of knowledge.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-07
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030099
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 100: Machine Learning-Assisted Design of Doping
Strategies for High-Voltage LiCoO2: A Data-Driven Approach
Authors: Man Fang, Yutong Yao, Chao Pang, Xiehang Chen, Yutao Wei, Fan Zhou, Xiaokun Zhang, Yong Xiang
First page: 100
Abstract: Doping lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) cathode materials is an effective strategy for mitigating the detrimental phase transitions that occur at high voltages. A deep understanding of the relationships between cycle capacity and the design elements of doped LiCoO2 is critical for overcoming the existing research limitations. The key lies in constructing a robust and interpretable mapping model between data and performance. In this study, we analyze the correlations between the features and cycle capacity of 158 different element-doped LiCoO2 systems by using five advanced machine learning algorithms. First, we conducted a feature election to reduce model overfitting through a combined approach of mechanistic analysis and Pearson correlation analysis. Second, the experimental results revealed that RF and XGBoost are the two best-performing models for data fitting. Specifically, the RF and XGBoost models have the highest fitting performance for IC and EC prediction, with R2 values of 0.8882 and 0.8318, respectively. Experiments focusing on ion electronegativity design verified the effectiveness of the optimal combined model. We demonstrate the benefits of machine learning models in uncovering the core elements of complex doped LiCoO2 formulation design. Furthermore, these combined models can be employed to search for materials with superior electrochemical performance and processing conditions. In the future, we aim to develop more accurate and efficient machine learning algorithms to explore the microscopic mechanisms affecting doped layered oxide cathode material design, thereby establishing new paradigms for the research of high-performance cathode materials for lithium batteries.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-07
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030100
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 101: Monodisperse Hierarchical N-Doped Carbon
Microspheres with Uniform Pores as a Cathode Host for Advanced K–Se
Batteries
Authors: Hyun-Jin Kim, Jeong-Ho Na, Seung-Keun Park
First page: 101
Abstract: K–Se batteries offer high energy density and cost-effectiveness, making them promising candidates for energy storage systems. However, their practical applications are hindered by Se aggregation, sluggish ion diffusion, and significant volumetric expansion. To address these challenges, monodisperse hierarchical N-doped carbon microspheres (NCHS) with uniformly sized pores were synthesized as cathode hosts. The flower-like microstructure, formed by the assembly of two-dimensional building blocks, mitigated Se aggregation and facilitated uniform distribution within the pores, enhancing Se utilization. Nitrogen doping, introduced during synthesis, strengthened chemical bonding between selenium and the carbon host, suppressed side reactions, and accelerated reaction kinetics. These synergistic effects enabled efficient ion transport, improved electrolyte accessibility, and enhanced redox reactions. Additionally, the uniform particle and pore sizes of NCHS effectively mitigated volumetric expansion and surface accumulation, ensuring long-term cycling stability and superior electrochemical performance. Se-loaded NCHS (Se@NCHS) exhibited a high discharge capacity of 199.4 mA h g−1 at 0.5 C after 500 cycles with 70.4% capacity retention and achieved 188 mA h g−1 at 3.0 C, outperforming conventional carbon hosts such as Super P. This study highlights the significance of structural and chemical modifications in optimizing cathode materials and offers valuable insights for developing high-performance energy storage systems.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-07
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030101
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 102: Improvement of Interphase Stability of Hard
Carbon for Sodium-Ion Battery by Ionic Liquid Additives
Authors: Dexi Meng, Zongkun Bian, Kailimai Su, Yan Wang, Zhibin Lu, Enlin Cai, Junwei Lang
First page: 102
Abstract: Hard carbon (HC), which is one of the anode materials widely used in commercial sodium-ion batteries at present, suffers from a thick and unstable solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer formed by the self-reduction in traditional carbonate-based electrolytes on its surface. This phenomenon impacts the battery’s Coulomb efficiency, cycle stability, and rate performance. In this paper, a pyrrolidinium-type di-cation ionic liquid, butyl-1,4-di(methylpyrrolidinium) di[hexafluorophosphate] (C4di[mPy].di[PF6]), is studied as an electrolyte additive to improve the interphase stability of the HC anode. The PF6− in C4di[mPy].di[PF6] enhances the coordination number between Na+ and PF6−, and C4di[mPy]2+ is preferentially reduced, jointly participating in the construction of stable, thin, dense and NaF-rich SEI films, thus laying the foundation for improving battery performance. As a result, in the carbonate electrolyte containing 2 wt% C4di[mPy].di[PF6], the reversible capacity of the HC/Na half-cell is increased by 14.7%, and the capacity retention rate remains at 90.4% after 400 cycles. This work provides reference for future research and design of high-performance ion liquid additives.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-08
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030102
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 103: Study on Blended Terpolymer Electrolyte
Membrane for Enhanced Safety and Performance in Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Wansu Bae, Sabuj Chandra Sutradhar, Subeen Song, Kijong Joo, Doyul Lee, Donghoon Kang, Hyewon Na, Jiye Lee, Whangi Kim, Hohyoun Jang
First page: 103
Abstract: The persistent emphasis on safety issues in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with organic liquid electrolytes revolves around thermal runaway and dendrite formation. The high thermal stability and non-leakage properties of polymer electrolytes (PEs) make them attractive as next-generation electrolytes for LIBs. This study presents a blended terpolymer electrolyte (BTPE) membrane, integrating the high ionic conductivity of dual ion conducting polymer electrolytes (DICPEs) with the elevated lithium transference number (t+) of single-ion conducting polymer electrolytes (SICPEs). The BTPE was synthesized by blending PAA–PVA with lithiated acrylic acid (LiAA), lithiated 2–acrylamido–2–methylpropane sulfonic acid (LiAMPS), and a 2–hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA)–based terpolymer, using lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI) as the lithium salt. The synthesized BTPE showed excellent physical and electrochemical stability; it also exhibited an enhanced lithium transference number (t+ = 0.47) and high ionic conductivity (5.21 × 10−4 S cm−1 at 30 °C), attributed to the interaction between the FSI anion and the NH group of AMPS. This research presents an innovative strategy for the design of next-generation LIB electrolytes by integrating polymer electrolytes.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-11
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030103
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 104: Least Cost Vehicle Charging in a Smart
Neighborhood Considering Uncertainty and Battery Degradation
Authors: Curd Schade, Parinaz Aliasghari, Ruud Egging-Bratseth, Clara Pfister
First page: 104
Abstract: The electricity landscape is constantly evolving, with intermittent and distributed electricity supply causing increased variability and uncertainty. The growth in electric vehicles, and electrification on the demand side, further intensifies this issue. Managing the increasing volatility and uncertainty is of critical importance to secure and minimize costs for the energy supply. Smart neighborhoods offer a promising solution to locally manage the supply and demand of energy, which can ultimately lead to cost savings while addressing intermittency features. This study assesses the impact of different electric vehicle charging strategies on smart grid energy costs, specifically accounting for battery degradation due to cycle depths, state of charge, and uncertainties in charging demand and electricity prices. Employing a comprehensive evaluation framework, the research assesses the impacts of different charging strategies on operational costs and battery degradation. Multi-stage stochastic programming is applied to account for uncertainties in electricity prices and electric vehicle charging demand. The findings demonstrate that smart charging can significantly reduce expected energy costs, achieving a 10% cost decrease and reducing battery degradation by up to 30%. We observe that the additional cost reductions from allowing Vehicle-to-Grid supply compared to smart charging are small. Using the additional flexibility aggravates degradation, which reduces the total cost benefits. This means that most benefits are obtainable just by optimized the timing of the charging itself.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-11
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030104
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 105: Experimental Analysis of Battery Cell
Heating Through Electromagnetic Induction-Based Liquid System Considering
Induction Power and Flow Rate Effects in Extreme-Cold Conditions
Authors: Alirıza Kaleli, Bilal Sungur
First page: 105
Abstract: The performance of lithium-ion batteries deteriorates significantly under extreme-cold conditions due to increased internal resistance and decreased electrochemical activity. This study presents an experimental analysis of a battery thermal management system (BTMS) incorporating electromagnetic induction heating and a fluid-based heat transfer mechanism to alleviate these problems. The experimental setup utilizes a closed-loop circulation system where ethylene glycol-based fluid flows through induction-heated copper tubes, ensuring efficient heat transfer to an 18650-cell battery. This study evaluates heating performance under varying ambient temperatures (−15 °C and −5 °C), fluid flow rates (0.22, 0.3, and 0.5 L/min), and induction power levels (150 W, 225 W, 275 W, and 400 W). The results indicate that lower flow rates (e.g., 0.22 L/min) provide faster heating due to longer thermal interaction time with the battery; however, localized boiling points were observed at these low flow rates, potentially leading to efficiency losses and thermal instability. At −15 °C and 400 W, the battery temperature reached 25 °C in 383 s at 0.22 L/min, while at 0.5 L/min, the same temperature was achieved in 463 s. Higher flow rates improved temperature uniformity but slightly reduced heating efficiency due to increased heat dissipation. Internal resistance measurements revealed a substantial decrease as battery temperature increased, further validating the effectiveness of the system. These findings present a viable alternative for heating electric vehicle batteries in sub-zero environments, thereby optimizing battery performance and extending operational lifespan.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-12
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030105
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 106: Plasticized Ionic Liquid Crystal Elastomer
Emulsion-Based Polymer Electrolyte for Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Zakaria Siddiquee, Hyunsang Lee, Weinan Xu, Thein Kyu, Antal Jákli
First page: 106
Abstract: The development and electrochemical characteristics of ionic liquid crystal elastomers (iLCEs) are described for use as electrolyte components in lithium-ion batteries. The unique combination of elastic and liquid crystal properties in iLCEs grants them robust mechanical attributes and structural ordering. Specifically, the macroscopic alignment of phase-segregated, ordered nanostructures in iLCEs serves as an ion pathway, which can be solidified through photopolymerization to create ion-conductive solid-state polymer lithium batteries (SSPLBs) with high ionic conductivity (1.76 × 10−3 S cm−1 at 30 °C), and a high (0.61) transference number. Additionally, the rubbery state ensures good interfacial contact with electrodes that inhibits lithium dendrite formation. Furthermore, in contrast to liquid electrolytes, the iLCE shrinks upon heating, thus preventing any overheating-related explosions. The Li/LiFePO4 (LFP) cells fabricated using iLCE-based solid electrolytes show excellent cycling stability with a discharge capacity of ~124 mAh g−1 and a coulombic efficiency close to 100%. These results are promising for the practical application of iLCE-based SSPLBs.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-12
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030106
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 107: Exploiting Artificial Neural Networks for
the State of Charge Estimation in EV/HV Battery Systems: A Review
Authors: Pierpaolo Dini, Davide Paolini
First page: 107
Abstract: Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) improve battery management in electric vehicles (EVs) by enhancing the safety, durability, and reliability of electrochemical batteries, particularly through improvements in the State of Charge (SOC) estimation. EV batteries operate under demanding conditions, which can affect performance and, in extreme cases, lead to critical failures such as thermal runaway—an exothermic chain reaction that may result in overheating, fires, and even explosions. Addressing these risks requires advanced diagnostic and management strategies, and machine learning presents a powerful solution due to its ability to adapt across multiple facets of battery management. The versatility of ML enables its application to material discovery, model development, quality control, real-time monitoring, charge optimization, and fault detection, positioning it as an essential technology for modern battery management systems. Specifically, ANN models excel at detecting subtle, complex patterns that reflect battery health and performance, crucial for accurate SOC estimation. The effectiveness of ML applications in this domain, however, is highly dependent on the selection of quality datasets, relevant features, and suitable algorithms. Advanced techniques such as active learning are being explored to enhance ANN model performance by improving the models’ responsiveness to diverse and nuanced battery behavior. This compact survey consolidates recent advances in machine learning for SOC estimation, analyzing the current state of the field and highlighting the challenges and opportunities that remain. By structuring insights from the extensive literature, this paper aims to establish ANNs as a foundational tool in next-generation battery management systems, ultimately supporting safer and more efficient EVs through real-time fault detection, accurate SOC estimation, and robust safety protocols. Future research directions include refining dataset quality, optimizing algorithm selection, and enhancing diagnostic precision, thereby broadening ANNs’ role in ensuring reliable battery management in electric vehicles.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-13
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030107
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 108: Multistage Early Warning of Sodium-Ion
Battery Thermal Runaway Using Multidimensional Signal Analysis and
Redundancy Optimization
Authors: Jinzhong Li, Yuguang Xie, Bin Xu, Jiarui Zhang, Xinyu Wang, Lei Mao
First page: 108
Abstract: This paper proposes an early warning method for thermal runaway in sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) based on multidimensional signal analysis and redundancy optimization. By analyzing signals such as voltage, temperature, strain, and gas concentrations, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is employed to evaluate the contribution of each signal and reduce data redundancy, while correlation analysis further refines the signal set by eliminating overlapping information. The optimized signals enable a stage-specific warning framework, which identifies distinct phases of thermal runaway progression with high precision. Experimental results validate the effectiveness of the proposed method, showcasing its potential for real-time monitoring and enhanced safety management of sodium-ion battery systems in critical applications.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-13
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030108
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 109: Experimental and Reduced-Order Modeling
Research of Thermal Runaway Propagation in 100 Ah Lithium Iron Phosphate
Battery Module
Authors: Han Li, Chengshan Xu, Yan Wang, Xilong Zhang, Yongliang Zhang, Mengqi Zhang, Peiben Wang, Huifa Shi, Languang Lu, Xuning Feng
First page: 109
Abstract: The thermal runaway propagation (TRP) model of energy storage batteries can provide solutions for the safety protection of energy storage systems. Traditional TRP models are solved using the finite element method, which can significantly consume computational resources and time due to the large number of elements and nodes involved. To ensure solution accuracy and improve computational efficiency, this paper transforms the heat transfer problem in finite element calculations into a state-space equation form based on the reduced-order theory of linear time-invariant (LTI) systems; a simplified method is proposed to solve the heat flow changes in the battery TRP process, which is simple, stable, and computationally efficient. This study focuses on a four-cell 100 Ah lithium iron phosphate battery module, and module experiments are conducted to analyze the TRP characteristics of the battery. A reduced-order model (ROM) of module TRP is established based on the Arnoldi method for Krylov subspace, and a comparison of simulation efficiency is conducted with the finite element model (FEM). Finally, energy flow calculations are performed based on experimental and simulation data to obtain the energy flow rule during TRP process. The results show that the ROM achieves good accuracy with critical feature errors within 10%. Compared to the FEM, the simulation duration is reduced by 40%. The model can greatly improve the calculation efficiency while predicting the three-dimensional temperature distribution of the battery. This work facilitates the efficient computation of TRP simulations for energy storage batteries and the design of safety protection for energy storage battery systems.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-03-13
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11030109
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 3 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 39: Temperature-Dependent FTIRS Study of
Manganese Oxide Spinel Obtained by Solution Combustion Synthesis (SCS) for
Supercapacitor Applications
Authors: Taylan Karakoç, Sécou Sall, Sergey N. Pronkin
First page: 39
Abstract: Solution combustion synthesis (SCS) is often utilized to prepare crystalline nanoparticles of transition metal oxides, in particular Mn oxides. The structure and composition of the final product depend on the conditions of the synthesis, in particular on the composition of metal precursors, its molar ratio to the fuel component, and the mode of heating. In the present work, the study of chemical phenomena that may occur in the SCS process has been studied for the conventional nitrate–glycine synthesis of Mn oxide, as well as for nitrate–citrate–glycine and nitrate–citrate–urea synthesis. In the case of nitrate–glycine synthesis at a 1:1 fuel-to-salt ratio, the formation of a weak complex of Mn(II) and glycine provides the conditions for an instantaneous SCS reaction upon heating, resulting in slight sintering of final oxide nanoparticles. Partial hydrolysis of the Mn precursor during slow solvent evaporation results in the formation of a mixture of oxides, namely MnO and Mn3O4. Formation of MnO is completely suppressed when ammonium citrate is added into the initial mixture. Pure Mn2O3 oxide is obtained from nitrate–citrate synthesis, while the pure Mn3O4 phase is obtained in the case of nitrate–citrate–glycine and nitrate–citrate–urea synthesis, due to the higher temperature generated in the presence of additional fuel. In the presence of citrate, the SCS reaction is slower, resulting in stronger sintering of the nanoparticles. The study of the electrochemical properties of synthesized oxides demonstrates that SCS with the nitrate–citrate–urea mixture provides the highest charge capacitance in 1 M NaOH: 130 F/g at 2 A/g. The impedance characterization of materials allows us to propose a tentative mechanism of degradation of electrode materials during galvanostatic cycling.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-21
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020039
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 40: Lithium Tracer Diffusion in LixCoO2 and
LixNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (x = 1, 0.9, 0.65)-Sintered Bulk Cathode Materials
for Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Erwin Hüger, Daniel Uxa, Harald Schmidt
First page: 40
Abstract: The knowledge of Li diffusivities in electrode materials of Li-ion batteries (LIBs) is essential for a fundamental understanding of charging/discharging times, maximum capacities, stress formation and possible side reactions. The literature indicates that Li diffusion in the cathode material Li(Ni,Mn,Co)O2 strongly increases during electrochemical delithiation. Such an increased Li diffusivity will be advantageous for performance if it is present already in the initial state after synthesis. In order to understand the influence of a varying initial Li content on Li diffusion, we performed Li tracer diffusion experiments on LixCoO2 (LCO) and LixNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC, x = 1, 0.9, 0.65) cathode materials. The measurements were performed on polycrystalline sintered bulk materials, free of additives and binders, in order to study the intrinsic properties. The variation of Li content was achieved using reactive solid-state synthesis using pressed Li2CO3, NiO, Co3O4 and/or MnO2 powders and high temperature sintering at 800 °C. XRD analyses showed that the resultant bulk samples exhibit the layered LCO or NMC phases with a low amount of cation intermixing. Moreover, the presence of additional NiO and Co3O4 phases was detected in NMC with a pronounced nominal Li deficiency of x = 0.65. As a tracer source, a 6Li tracer layer with the same chemical composition was deposited using ion beam sputtering. Secondary ion mass spectrometry in depth profile mode was used for isotopic analysis. The diffusivities followed the Arrhenius law with an activation enthalpy of about 0.8 eV and were nearly identical within error for all samples investigated in the temperature range up to 500 °C. For a diffusion mechanism based on structural Li vacancies, the results indicated that varying the Li content does not result in a change in the vacancy concentration. Consequently, the design and use of a cathode initially made of a Li-deficient material will not improve the kinetics of battery performance. The possible reasons for this unexpected result are discussed.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-21
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020040
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 41: Comprehensive Assessment of Novel
Technologies for Electrolyte Filling in Lithium-Ion Battery Production
Authors: Michael Hinkers, Kristina Borzutzki, Oliver Krätzig, Florian Degen
First page: 41
Abstract: Electric vehicles play a pivotal role in the decarbonization of the mobility sector. However, their success depends on low-cost, high-performance batteries, requiring continuous optimization of their production processes. Electrolyte filling is a critical and costly bottleneck in the cell assembly and influences the quality and safety of the cells, offering great potential for identifying process optimizations. The aim of this study is to complement existing studies by analyzing and evaluating novel technologies for electrolyte filling and thus to provide guidance for industry and science. A systematic literature and patent search led to the identification of sixteen relevant technologies. These were evaluated by a group of experts from the scientific community to identify the most promising technologies. As a result of this evaluation, five technologies emerged that were assessed as positive compared to the state of the art. Overall, the results of this study indicate that the dominating trend in electrolyte filling will be direct pressurization of the battery cells with increasing pressures. Apart from this trend, no other fundamentally new process technologies for industrial use are currently foreseeable. Our findings indicate that both academics and practitioners should focus future research and industrial efforts on optimizing and understanding the current process.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-21
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020041
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 42: Ceramic-Rich Composite Separators for
High-Voltage Solid-State Batteries
Authors: Kevin Vattappara, Martin Finsterbusch, Dina Fattakhova-Rohlfing, Idoia Urdampilleta, Andriy Kvasha
First page: 42
Abstract: Composite solid electrolytes are gaining interest regarding their use in Li-metal solid-state batteries. Although high ceramic content improves the electrochemical stability of ceramic-rich composite separators (C-SCE), the polymeric matrix also plays a vital role. In the first generation of C-SCE separators with a PEO-based matrix, the addition of 90–95 wt% of Li6.45Al0.05La3Zr1.6Ta0.4O12 (LLZO) does not make C-SCE stable for cell cycling with high-voltage (HV) cathodes. For the next iteration, the objective was to find an HV-stable polymeric matrix for C-SCEs. Herein, we report results on optimizing C-SCE separators with different ceramics and polymers which can craft the system towards better stability with NMC622-based composite cathodes. Both LLZO and Li1.3Al0.3Ti1.7(PO4)3 (LATP) were utilized as ceramic components in C-SCE separators. Poly(diallyldimethylammonium) bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (PDDA-TFSI) and poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP) were used as polymers in the “polymer/LiTFSI/plasticizer”-based matrix. The initial phase of the selection criteria for the separator matrix involved assessing mechanical stability and ionic conductivity. Two optimized separator formulations were then tested for their electrochemical stability with both Li metal and HV composite cathodes. The results showed that Li/NMC622 cells with LP70_PVDF_HFP and LZ70_PDDA-TFSI separators exhibited more stable cycling performance compared to those with LZ90_PEO300k-based separators.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-21
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020042
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 43: Study on the Effect of Air Velocity and Duct
Area on the Heat Dissipation of Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Zhiheng Pan, Maoyong Zhi, Lei Yuan, Qinrou Xu, Qiang Sun, Xiantao Chen
First page: 43
Abstract: With the growing adoption of lithium-ion batteries, the risk of battery thermal runaway is increasing, so effective temperature regulation for battery systems is essential. The air cooling system for battery thermal management offers advantages such as a simple structure and low cost, making it a promising solution for electric aircraft, electric vehicles, and other applications. In this work, the influence of inlet air velocity, inlet size, and inlet/outlet area ratio on the maximum temperature and maximum temperature difference in the battery pack was simulatively studied. When the inlet air velocity was 4 m/s, inlet size was 73 mm × 25 mm, and inlet/outlet area ratio was 1.25, the heat dissipation effect of battery pack was excellent, and the maximum temperature was 324.8 K. This research offers a crucial foundation for designing and setting the operational parameters of air cooling thermal management systems in lithium-ion battery packs.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-22
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020043
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 44: Density Modeling of Battery Electrolyte
Mixtures
Authors: Christian A. Landry, Jacob G. Bergeron, Olivier Mathieu, Kevin L. Gering, James C. Thomas
First page: 44
Abstract: Lithium-ion battery (LIB) electrolytes are generally composed of a mixture of organic hydrocarbons and lithium salt (e.g., LiPF6). Experimental density data for basic and realistic multicomponent mixtures are scarce in the literature, and a predictive model for electrolyte solution density is not yet widely available. This work resolves to create a simple predictive method that can be used to estimate the density of these mixtures. A model that accounts for intermolecular forces in the electrolyte mixture was developed and fitted to density data available in the literature that was internally vetted for consistency. The model exhibited high accuracy for single-component electrolyte mixtures, with most predictions falling within 1% of measured values and all predictions falling within 5%. The model was further extended to more realistic, multi-solvent electrolyte mixtures that exhibited similar accuracy. In addition, a novel, accurate method for computing absolute molar and mass fractions of multi-solvent mixtures with specified volumetric concentrations (e.g., 1.2 M LiPF6 in 1:1:1% vol. ethylene carbonate-EC/diethyl carbonate-DEC/dimethyl carbonate-DMC) is also described. The two separate approaches were combined to yield a modeling framework capable of computing molar concentrations and densities of all LIB electrolyte solutions based on LiPF6 loaded in any combination of EC, EMC, DEC, DMC, and PC. Additional ionic salt data for NaPF6 and LiFSI were also evaluated to illustrate the adaptability of the model to different salts and electrolytes. Once again, the model was successful, with most density predictions falling within 1% error and all falling within 5%. This work ultimately provides a simple, adaptable modeling framework for accurate prediction of electrolyte mixture densities.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-23
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020044
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 45: Ternary PEO/PVDF-HFP-Based Polymer
Electrolytes for Li-Ion Batteries
Authors: Hoang Bao Tran Nguyen, Ling Ding, Björn Pohle, Toni Schmeida, Hoang Bao An Nguyen, Daria Mikhailova
First page: 45
Abstract: The impetus to study and develop polymer electrolytes for metal-ion batteries is due to their enhanced safety compared to flammable organic liquid electrolytes, promising ionic conductivity, and broad electrochemical stability window, making them to viable candidates for battery application. In the current work, we present a simple fabrication procedure and a comprehensive physico–chemical study of various PVDF-HFP-based electrolyte formulations with a sufficient addition of PEO polymer, LiTFSI conducting salt, and EMIMTFSI ionic liquid. The ionic conductivity, activation energy for ionic movement and thickness of the resulting polymer electrolyte show a non-linear dependency on the PVDF-HFP/PEO ratio. The electrolyte composition with a 0.35PEO-0.65PVDF-HFP/1LiTFSI/1EMIMTFSI mass fraction exhibits the highest ionic conductivity among the compositions, revealing 7.7×10−5 S cm−1 at 30 °C. Electrochemical tests in half full and full Li-ion batteries with a LiFePO4 cathode and Li4Ti5O12 anode also emphasized this composition as the most promising one, providing an initial capacity in full cells of 120 mAh g−1 and a capacity retention of about 75% after 50 charge/discharge cycles at a 0.1 C current rate. In the PEO/PVDF-HFP polymer blend with EMIMTFSI as a plasticizer, the amount of crystalline parts, which are detrimental to a fast ionic diffusion, is significantly reduced.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-25
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020045
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 46: Nickel Stabilized Si/Ni/Si/Ni Multi-Layer
Thin-Film Anode for Long-Cycling-Life Lithium-Ion Battery
Authors: Yonhua Tzeng, Yu-Yang Chiou, Aurelius Ansel Wilendra
First page: 46
Abstract: Silicon-based anodes suffer from the loss of physical integrity due to large volume changes during alloying and de-alloying processes with electrolytes. By integrating electrochemically inert, physically strong, ductile nickel layers with a multi-layered thin-film silicon anode, the long-life cycling of the Si/Ni/Si/Ni anode was demonstrated. A capacity retention of 82% after 200 cycles was measured, surpassing the performance of conventional silicon thin-film anodes. This is attributed to the effective suppression of internal local stress induced by nonuniform volume expansion by the nickel layers. These findings offer a promising pathway towards the practical implementation of high-capacity silicon-based anodes in advanced lithium-ion batteries.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-25
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020046
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 47: Electrochemical Performance of Pre-Modified
Birch Biochar Monolith Supercapacitors by Ferric Chloride and Ferric
Citrate
Authors: Ziyue Song, Tianjie Feng, Donald W. Kirk, Charles Q. Jia
First page: 47
Abstract: This study investigated the electrochemical properties of supercapacitors by pre-modifying thick birch biochar monoliths with FeCl3 or C6H5FeO7 solutions prior to wood pyrolysis. The pre-modification introduced iron species to the surface, promoting the specific surface area, charge-stored species, and surface functionalities, which enhanced the gravimetric capacitance. X-ray diffraction confirmed the successful loading of Fe3O4 and Fe. SEM implied the wider distribution of iron-rich particulates and porous carbon via self-pyrolysis on the biochar surface modified with 1.0 M C6H5FeO7. Contact angle measurements demonstrated the enhanced wettability of the biochar surfaces following pre-modification, with the C6H5FeO7-modified samples exhibiting superior wettability compared to the other groups. The gravimetric capacitance of the supercapacitor was dramatically promoted and reached 210 F/g and 219 F/g, respectively, when modified with 1.0M C6H5FeO7 and 1.0 M FeCl3 at a 5 mA/g current density. Compared to the birch biochar modified with 1.0 M FeCl3, the 1.0 M C6H5FeO7 had a higher current response peak and capacitive behavior in the CV analysis, demonstrated better ion diffusion capacity, and had lower charge-transfer resistance in the EIS results. But, a slight irreversible process on the electrode of the 1.0 M C6H5FeO7 group led to a lower level of the supercapacitor capacitance retention. The results using ferric solution pre-impregnation show how iron species doping can improve capacitance behavior, providing a feasible scheme for the modification of thick biochar monolith.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-25
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020047
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 48: Some Critical Thinking on Electric Vehicle
Battery Reliability: From Enhancement to Optimization
Authors: Jing Lin, Christofer Silfvenius
First page: 48
Abstract: Electric vehicle (EV) batteries play a crucial role in sustainable transportation, with reliability being pivotal to their performance, longevity, and environmental impact. This study explores battery reliability from micro (individual user), meso (industry), and macro (societal) perspectives, emphasizing interconnected factors and challenges across the lifecycle. A novel lifecycle framework is proposed, introducing the concept of “Zero-Life” reliability to expand traditional evaluation methods. By integrating the reliability ecosystem with a dynamic system approach, this research offers comprehensive insights into the optimization of EV battery systems. Furthermore, an expansive Social–Industrial Large Knowledge Model (S-ILKM) is presented, bridging micro- and macro-level insights to enhance reliability across lifecycle stages. The findings provide a systematic pathway to advance EV battery reliability, aligning with global sustainability objectives and fostering innovation in sustainable mobility.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-25
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020048
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 49: A Novel Method for Estimating the State of
Health of Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Physics-Informed Neural Network
Authors: Yuxuan Deng, Changqing Du, Zhong Ren
First page: 49
Abstract: An accurate state of health (SOH) assessment of lithium-ion batteries is essential for ensuring the reliability and safety of electric vehicles (EVs). Data-driven SOH estimation methods have shown promise but face challenges in generalizing across diverse battery types and variable operating conditions. To address this, this study integrates physical information into data-driven approaches, enabling physically consistent inferences and a rapid adaptation to different battery chemistries and usage scenarios. Specifically, physical features correlated with battery degradation, such as the link between incremental capacity (IC) peaks and SOH, are used as constraints to guide model learning. A fully connected layer within a back-propagation neural network (BPNN) is employed to capture battery aging dynamics effectively. Experimental results on two datasets show that the proposed model outperforms traditional neural networks, reducing the RMSE by at least 1.1% and demonstrating strong generalizability in both single-dataset and transfer learning tasks.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-26
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020049
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 50: Thermal Safety Research of Lithium-Ion
Batteries Based on Flame-Retardant Phase Change Materials
Authors: Jiaxin Zhang, Jiajun Zhao, Yin Chen, Mingyi Chen
First page: 50
Abstract: Pure phase change materials (PCMs) have drawbacks such as low thermal conductivity and poor physical properties like flammability, which limit their further application in battery thermal management systems. This paper introduces an innovative flame-retardant composite phase change material (CPCM) made from paraffin, expanded graphite, chitosan (CS), ammonium polyphosphate (APP), and aluminum hypophosphite (AHP). The physicochemical properties and flame-retardant performance of CPCMs with five different flame-retardant ratios of 9%, 12%, 15%, 18%, and 21% are studied, and their application effects in battery thermal safety are revealed. The results show that the combination of flame retardants CS, APP, and AHP exhibits effective synergistic effects, and the prepared CPCM exhibits good flame-retardant properties and thermal management effects. The CPCM exhibits outstanding thermal management performance when the flame-retardant content is 12%. At a maximum discharge rate of 3C, compared to natural air-cooling conditions, the maximum battery temperature and temperature difference are controlled within the safe range of 41 °C and below 5 °C, respectively. The CPCM can play an important role in the thermal safety of lithium-ion batteries.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-26
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020050
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 51: Sustainable Extraction of Critical Minerals
from Waste Batteries: A Green Solvent Approach in Resource Recovery
Authors: Afzal Ahmed Dar, Zhi Chen, Gaixia Zhang, Jinguang Hu, Karim Zaghib, Sixu Deng, Xiaolei Wang, Fariborz Haghighat, Catherine N. Mulligan, Chunjiang An, Antonio Avalos Ramirez, Shuhui Sun
First page: 51
Abstract: This strategic review examines the pivotal role of sustainable methodologies in battery recycling and the recovery of critical minerals from waste batteries, emphasizing the need to address existing technical and environmental challenges. Through a systematic analysis, it explores the application of green organic solvents in mineral processing, advocating for establishing eco-friendly techniques aimed at clipping waste and boosting resource utilization. The escalating demand for and shortage of essential minerals including copper, cobalt, lithium, and nickel are comprehensively analyzed and forecasted for 2023, 2030, and 2040. Traditional extraction techniques, including hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical, and bio-metallurgical processes, are efficient but pose substantial environmental hazards and contribute to resource scarcity. The concept of green extraction arises as a crucial step towards ecological conservation, integrating sustainable practices to lessen the environmental footprint of mineral extraction. The advancement of green organic solvents, notably ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents, is examined, highlighting their attributes of minimal toxicity, biodegradability, and superior efficacy, thus presenting great potential in transforming the sector. The emergence of organic solvents such as palm oil, 1-octanol, and Span 80 is recognized, with advantageous low solubility and adaptability to varying temperatures. Kinetic (mainly temperature) data of different deep eutectic solvents are extracted from previous studies and computed with machine learning techniques. The coefficient of determination and mean squared error reveal the accuracy of experimental and computed data. In essence, this study seeks to inspire ongoing efforts to navigate impediments, embrace technological advancements including artificial intelligence, and foster an ethos of environmental stewardship in the sustainable extraction and recycling of critical metals from waste batteries.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-28
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020051
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 52: Li-Ion Mobility and Solvation Structures in
Concentrated Poly(ethylene carbonate) Electrolytes: A Molecular Dynamics
Simulation Study
Authors: Wei Tan, Kento Kimura, Yoichi Tominaga
First page: 52
Abstract: With the rapid global increase in the use of digital devices and electric vehicles, solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) have emerged as promising candidates for all-solid-state batteries. They are expected to resolve safety concerns and overcome the limitations of energy density and charging speed associated with traditional Li-ion batteries with liquid electrolytes. However, a limited understanding of ionic conduction mechanisms remains a significant barrier to their further development and practical application. In this study, we employed molecular dynamics simulations using the COMPASS II force field under NPT/NVT ensembles at 298 K to investigate the static and dynamic properties of poly(ethylene carbonate) (PEC) electrolytes at various salt concentrations. Key analyses included the radial distribution function, solvation free energy, and mean-square displacement (MSD) of individual Li cations. Based on their MSD data, Li cations were categorized into “faster” or “slower” groups, corresponding to conductivity levels above or below the average in each model. Our findings reveal that, at higher concentrations, a smaller fraction of faster Li cations contributes disproportionately more than slower Li cations to the overall mobility, highlighting that targeted manipulation of solvation structures could enhance ion transport efficiency in highly concentrated SPEs. Additionally, changes in coordination number and solvation free energy for both faster and slower Li cations suggest the existence of three different solvation patterns as salt concentration increases. These insights provide a deeper understanding of ionic transport and solvation structures in PEC electrolytes, with potential implications for the design of more efficient all-solid-state batteries.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-28
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020052
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 53: Fluorination Strategies for
Mn₃O₄ Nanoparticles: Enhancing Reversibility and Capacity in
Li-Ion Batteries
Authors: Régis Porhiel, Batiste Clavier, Taylan Karakoç, Sergey Pronkin, Dominique Foix, Elodie Petit, Malika El-Ghozzi, Katia Guérin
First page: 53
Abstract: Transition metal oxides (TMOs) occupy an increasing share in the search for new electrode materials for Li-Ion batteries. Despite promising electrochemical performances (up to 1000 mAh g−1 in the case of conversion), these materials have poor cyclability linked primarily to hysteresis phenomena. To improve their electrochemical performance, one strategy consists of reducing the particle size. A second strategy relies on the incorporation of fluorine directly into electrode materials to limit the solid–electrolyte interface (SEI). Our study focuses on the impact of fluorination on the electrochemical performance of manganese oxide obtained by solid combustion synthesis (SCS). Two fluorinating agents were used: pure gaseous molecular fluorine F2 and radical fluorine F• through xenon difluoride XeF2 decomposition. The use of F2 results in strong fluorination localized primarily at the particle surface while XeF2 diffuses deeper into the particle, resulting in the removal of residual carbon from the synthesis by combustion. The electrochemical performance of the oxide fluorinated with XeF2 reaches more than 750 mAh g−1 after 160 cycles, whereas that of the oxide fluorinated by F2 barely exceeds that of the non-fluorinated oxide, less than 200 mAh g−1 after 200 cycles.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-28
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020053
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 54: A Review of Pnictogenides for
Next-Generation Anode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Sion Ha, Junhee Kim, Dong Won Kim, Jun Min Suh, Kyeong-Ho Kim
First page: 54
Abstract: With the growing market of secondary batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) and grid-scale energy storage systems (ESS), driven by environmental challenges, the commercialization of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) has emerged to address the high price of lithium resources used in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, achieving competitive energy densities of SIBs to LIBs remains challenging due to the absence of high-capacity anodes in SIBs such as the group-14 elements, Si or Ge, which are highly abundant in LIBs. This review presents potential candidates in metal pnictogenides as promising anode materials for SIBs to overcome the energy density bottleneck. The sodium-ion storage mechanisms and electrochemical performance across various compositions and intrinsic physical and chemical properties of pnictogenide have been summarized. By correlating these properties, strategic frameworks for designing advanced anode materials for next-generation SIBs were suggested. The trade-off relation in pnictogenides between the high specific capacities and the failure mechanism due to large volume expansion has been considered in this paper to address the current issues. This review covers several emerging strategies focused on improving both high reversible capacity and cycle stability.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-29
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020054
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 55: One-Dimensional Electro-Thermal Modelling of
Battery Pack Cooling System for Heavy-Duty Truck Application
Authors: Mateusz Maciocha, Thomas Short, Udayraj Thorat, Farhad Salek, Harvey Thompson, Meisam Babaie
First page: 55
Abstract: The transport sector is responsible for nearly a quarter of global CO2 emissions annually, underscoring the urgent need for cleaner, more sustainable alternatives such as electric vehicles (EVs). However, the electrification of heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) has been slow due to the substantial power and battery capacity required to match the large payloads and extended operational ranges. This study addresses the research gap in battery pack design for commercial HGVs by investigating the electrical and thermal behaviour of a novel battery pack configuration using an electro-thermal model based on the equivalent circuit model (ECM). Through computationally efficient 1D modelling, this study evaluates critical factors such as cycle ageing, state of charge (SoC), and their impact on the battery’s range, initially estimated at 285 km. The findings of this study suggest that optimal cooling system parameters, including a flow rate of 18 LPM (litres per minute) and actively controlling the inlet temperature within ±7.8 °C, significantly enhance thermal performance and stability. This comprehensive electro-thermal assessment and the advanced cooling strategy set this work apart from previous studies centred on smaller EV applications. The findings provide a foundation for future research into battery thermal management system (BTMS) design and optimised charging strategies, both of which are essential for accelerating the industrial deployment of electrified HGVs.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-31
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020055
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 56: Effects of Ultrasonic Pretreatment on the
Discharge for Better Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Weichen Yang, Zheng Tong, Hezhan Wan, Shuangyin Jiang, Xiangning Bu, Lisha Dong
First page: 56
Abstract: Discharge treatment is a vital process in the pretreatment of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). This paper focuses on the effects of ultrasonic pretreatment on the discharge of spent LIBs from the perspective of electrolyte concentration and ultrasonic power. By integrating characterizations such as pH measurement and X-ray fluorescence (XRF), the effect of ultrasonic pretreatment on the discharge of spent LIBs is evaluated. Experimental results show that sodium chloride (NaCl) solution and potassium chloride (KCl) solution have a more significant and better discharge efficiency (DE) under ultrasonic treatment, while organic electrolyte solutions which mainly contain formate and acetate generally show a less ideal DE. Under experimental conditions of using electrolyte discharge solutions with various electrolyte concentrations with the same ultrasonic power of 300 W, the DE generated from the experimental condition with KCl solution in 30 g/200 mL deionized water is the highest, 64.9%; under different ultrasonic powers in the same electrolyte solutions, the DE of 10 wt.% HCOONa solution is the highest at ultrasonic power of 500 W, at 4.7%. This work provides a reference for the efficient and cost-effective pretreatment of spent LIBs and the discharge mechanism in different electrolyte solutions with ultrasonic treatment is also explored to support the recycling of spent LIBs.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-02
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020056
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 57: Cathodes for Zinc-Ion Micro-Batteries:
Challenges, Strategies, and Perspectives
Authors: Ling Deng, Qunfang Lin, Zeyang Li, Juexian Cao, Kailing Sun, Tongye Wei
First page: 57
Abstract: The sustainable development of high-performance micro-batteries, characterized by miniaturized size, portability, enhanced safety, and cost-effectiveness, is crucial for the advancement of wearable and smart electronics. Zinc-ion micro-batteries (ZIMBs) have attracted widespread attention for their high energy density, environmental friendliness, excellent safety, and low cost. The key to designing high-performance ZIMBs lies in improving their volumetric capacity and cycle stability. This review focuses on material design, electrode fabrication, and the structural configuration of micro-batteries, providing a comprehensive analysis of the challenges and strategies associated with cathodes in ZIMBs. Additionally, the application of ZIMBs, which provide energy for electronics such as wearable devices, tiny robots, and sensors, is introduced. Finally, future perspectives on cathodes for ZIMBs are discussed, offering key insights into their design and fabrication in order to facilitate the successful integration of ZIMBs into practical applications.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-02
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020057
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 58: Online Cell-by-Cell Calibration Method to
Enhance the Kalman-Filter-Based State-of-Charge Estimation
Authors: Ngoc-Thao Pham, Phuong-Ha La, Sungoh Kwon, Sung-Jin Choi
First page: 58
Abstract: Kalman filter (KF) is an effective way to estimate the state-of-charge (SOC), but its performance is heavily dependent on the state-space model parameters. One of the factors that causes the model parameters to change is battery aging, which is individually and non-uniformly experienced by the cells inside the battery pack. To mitigate this issue, this paper proposes an online calibration method considering the impact of cell aging and cell inconsistency. In this method, the state-of-health (SOH) levels of the individual cells are estimated using the deep learning method, and the historical parameter loop-up table is constructed to update the state-space model. The proposed calibration framework provides enhanced accuracy for cell-by-cell SOC estimation by lightweight computing devices. The SOC estimation errors of the calibrated EKF reduce to 1.81% compared to 12.1% of the uncalibrated algorithms.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-02
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020058
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 59: Experimental Study on Thermal Management of
5S7P Battery Module with Immersion Cooling Under High Charging/Discharging
C-Rates
Authors: Le Duc Tai, Kunal Sandip Garud, Moo-Yeon Lee
First page: 59
Abstract: In this study, the efficiency of an immersion cooling system for controlling the temperature of 5S7P battery modules at high charge and discharge C-rates was experimentally evaluated. The study was conducted in three main stages including the evaluation of different coolant oils followed by the proposition of an optimal volume flow rate (VFR) and cooling performance evaluation under high charging/discharging C-rates. In the first stage, three coolant oils, including Therminol D-12, Pitherm 150B, and BOT 2100, were compared. The Therminol D-12 achieved superior cooling performance, with the highest heat transfer coefficient (HTC) of 2171.93 W/m2⋅K and the ability to maintain the maximum temperature (Tmax) and temperature difference (∆T) of the battery module within the safe range. In the next stage, VFR was varied between 0.4 LPM and 1.0 LPM for the selected best coolant oil of Therminol D-12. The 0.8 LPM VFR was determined to be optimal with the highest HTC of 2445.73 W/m2⋅K and an acceptable pressure drop of 12,650 Pa, ensuring a balance between cooling performance and energy consumption. Finally, the cooling performance was evaluated at high charging/discharging C-rates from 1.5C to 3.0C for the proposed best coolant oil and VFR. The immersion cooling system with Therminol D-12 and a VFR of 0.8 LPM is an effective combination to achieve the desired performance of the battery module under extreme C-rate working conditions. The immersion cooling system with the proposed effective combination maintains the Tmax and ∆T at 38.6 °C and 4.3 °C under a charging rate of 3.0C and to 43.0 °C and 5.5 °C under a discharging rate of 3.0C.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-03
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020059
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 60: Battery-Type Transition Metal Oxides in
Hybrid Supercapacitors: Synthesis and Applications
Authors: Bikash Raut, Md. Shahriar Ahmed, Hae-Yong Kim, Mohammad Mizanur Rahman Khan, Gazi A. K. M. Rafiqul Bari, Mobinul Islam, Kyung-Wan Nam
First page: 60
Abstract: Hybrid supercapacitors (HSCs) have garnered growing interest for their ability to combine the high energy storage capability of batteries with the rapid charge–discharge characteristics of supercapacitors. This review examines the evolution of HSCs, emphasizing the synergistic mechanisms that integrate both Faradaic and non-Faradaic charge storage processes. Transition metal oxides (TMOs) are highlighted as promising battery-type electrodes owing to their notable energy storage potential and compatibility with various synthesis routes, including hydro/solvothermal methods, electrospinning, electrodeposition, and sol–gel processes. Particular attention is directed toward Ti-, Co-, and V-based TMOs, with a focus on tailoring their properties through morphology control, composite formation, and doping to enhance electrochemical performance. Overall, the discussion underscores the potential of HSCs to meet the growing demand for next-generation energy storage systems by bridging the gap between high energy and high power requirements.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-05
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020060
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 61: Sodium-Ion Batteries: Applications and
Properties
Authors: Petr Bača, Jiří Libich, Sára Gazdošová, Jaroslav Polkorab
First page: 61
Abstract: With the growing interest in reducing CO2 emissions to combat climate change, humanity is turning to green or renewable sources of electricity. There are numerous issues associated with the development of these sources. One of the key aspects of renewable energy sources is their problematic controllability, namely the control of energy production over time. Renewable sources are also associated with issues of recycling, utilization in different geographical zones, environmental impact within the required area, and so on. One of the most discussed issues today, however, is the question of efficient use of the energy produced from these sources. There are several different approaches to storing renewable energy, e.g., supercapacitors, flywheels, batteries, PCMs, pumped-storage hydroelectricity, and flow batteries. In the commercial sector, however, mainly due to acquisition costs, these options are narrowed down to only one concept: storing energy using an electrochemical storage device—batteries. Nowadays, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are the most widespread battery type. Despite many advantages of LIB technology, the availability of materials needed for the production of these batteries and the associated costs must also be considered. Thus, this battery type is not very ideal for large-scale stationary energy storage applications. Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are considered one of the most promising alternatives to LIBs in the field of stationary battery storage, as sodium (Na) is the most abundant alkali metal in the Earth’s crust, and the cell manufacturing process of SIBs is similar to that of LIBs. Unfortunately, considering the physical and electrochemical properties of Na, different electrode materials, electrolytes, and so on, are required. SIBs have come a long way since they were discovered. This review discusses the latest developments regarding the materials used in SIB technology.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-06
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020061
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 62: Small-Sample Battery Capacity Prediction
Using a Multi-Feature Transfer Learning Framework
Authors: Xiaoming Lu, Xianbin Yang, Xinhong Wang, Yu Shi, Jing Wang, Yiwen Yao, Xuefeng Gao, Haicheng Xie, Siyan Chen
First page: 62
Abstract: The accurate prediction of lithium-ion battery capacity is crucial for the safe and efficient operation of battery systems. Although data-driven approaches have demonstrated effectiveness in lifetime prediction, the acquisition of lifecycle data for long-life lithium batteries remains a significant challenge, limiting prediction accuracy. Additionally, the varying degradation trends under different operating conditions further hinder the generalizability of existing methods. To address these challenges, we propose a Multi-feature Transfer Learning Framework (MF-TLF) for predicting battery capacity in small-sample scenarios across diverse operating conditions (different temperatures and C-rates). First, we introduce a multi-feature analysis method to extract comprehensive features that characterize battery aging. Second, we develop a transfer learning-based data-driven framework, which leverages pre-trained models trained on large datasets to achieve a strong prediction performance in data-scarce scenarios. Finally, the proposed method is validated using both experimental and open-access datasets. When trained on a small sample dataset, the predicted RMSE error consistently stays within 0.05 Ah. The experimental results highlight the effectiveness of MF-TLF in achieving high prediction accuracy, even with limited data.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-07
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020062
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 63: Pseudocapacitive Storage in High-Performance
Flexible Batteries and Supercapacitors
Authors: Zhenxiao Lu, Xiaochuan Ren
First page: 63
Abstract: Attention to electrochemical energy storage (EES) devices continues to grow as the demand increases for energy storage systems in the storage and transmission of renewable energy. The expanded market requirement for mobile electronics devices and flexible electronic devices also calls for efficient energy suppliers. EES devices applying pseudocapacitive materials and generated pseudocapacitive storage are gaining increasing focus because they are capable of overcoming the capacity limitations of electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) and offsetting the rate performance of batteries. The pseudocapacitive storage mechanism generally occurs on the surface or near the surface of the electrode materials, which could avoid the slow ion diffusion process. Developing materials with beneficial nanostructures and optimized phases supporting pseudocapacitive storage would efficiently improve the energy density and charging rate for EES devices, such as batteries and flexible supercapacitors. This review offers a detailed assessment of pseudocapacitance, including classification, working mechanisms, analysis methods, promotion routes and advanced applications. The future challenges facing the effective utilization of pseudocapacitive mechanisms in upcoming energy storage devices are also discussed.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-07
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020063
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 64: Hybrid Heat Pipe-PCM-Assisted Thermal
Management for Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Nourouddin Sharifi, Hamidreza Shabgard, Christian Millard, Ugochukwu Etufugh
First page: 64
Abstract: A hybrid cooling method for 18650 lithium-ion batteries has been investigated using both experimental and numerical approaches for electric vehicle applications. The experimental setup includes a heater section, a phase change material (PCM) reservoir, and a cooling section. The heater section simulates battery heat generation with two cylindrical aluminum housings, each sized to match an 18650 battery, two cartridge heaters, and an aluminum heat sink. An airflow channel is incorporated into the cooling section. Heat transfers sequentially from the heaters to aluminum housings, the heat sink, through three copper-water heat pipes (HPs), to/from the PCM, and finally to the cooled air in the airflow channel. This innovative design eliminates direct contact between the PCM and the batteries, unlike recent studies where the PCM has been in direct contact with the batteries. Decoupling the PCM reduces system design complexity while maintaining effective thermal management. Temperature measurements at various locations are analyzed under different heater powers, air velocities, and scenarios with and without PCM. Results show that the experimental design effectively maintains battery temperatures within acceptable limits. For a power input of 16 W, steady-state temperatures are reduced by approximately 14%, 10%, and 4% with PCM compared to without PCM for air velocities of 2 m/s, 3 m/s, and 4 m/s, respectively. A transient three-dimensional numerical model was developed in ANSYS-FLUENT to provide insights into the underlying physics. The phase change was simulated using the enthalpy-porosity approach, with computational results showing reasonable agreement with experimental data.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-07
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020064
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 65: Lifecycle Evaluation of Lithium-Ion
Batteries Under Fast Charging and Discharging Conditions
Authors: Olivia Bruj, Adrian Calborean
First page: 65
Abstract: By employing electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, we performed an impedance analysis of three commercial Li-ion Panasonic NCR18650B cells in order to investigate the direct effects of their internal impedance on the operating voltage, rate capability, and efficiency and their practical capacity. We aimed to assess their performance, safety, and longevity when distinct fast charge/discharge rates were applied. By maintaining a constant fast discharge rate of 2C, we monitored the degradation speed and the influence of the C-rates on the LIBs by applying distinct charge rates, namely, 1C, 1.5C, and 2C. In order to understand how their performance correlates with usage conditions, an SoH evolution analysis, together with a Q–Q0 total charge and energy consumption examination, was performed, taking into account that cycling monitoring is vital for ensuring their longevity and/or safety. Increasing the Icharge from 1C to 1.5C reduces the battery lifetime by ~50%, while in the case of fast charge/discharge rates of 2C, the lifetime performance decrease is almost ~70% due to a capacity loss that accelerates quickly when the charge rates increase. Moreover, for the latter cell, the last discharge rate can only go up to ~80% SoH, as the battery charge rate can no longer support faster degradation. In agreement with these results, the fluctuations in the Q–Q0 total charge become more pronounced, clearly affecting LIB efficiency. High charge rates add an additional high voltage that increases the batteries’ stress, leading to a shorter lifetime. Energy consumption data follow the same trend, in which efficiency decreases dramatically when losses appear because the internal resistance causes more and more heat to be produced during both fast charging and discharging.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-07
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020065
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 66: Rapid State of Health Estimation Strategy
for Retired Batteries Based on Resting Voltage Curves
Authors: Haihong Huang, Xin Liu, Wenjing Chang, Yuhang Wang
First page: 66
Abstract: Retired batteries are approaching the recycling peak, and their secondary utilization can prevent resource waste and environmental pollution from battery retirement. Evaluating the state of health (SOH) of retired batteries is crucial for secondary use. However, estimating the SOH of retired batteries is time-consuming and energy-intensive. To address the problem, this paper proposes a rapid estimation strategy based on resting voltage curves. After discharging retired batteries to the same voltage, variations in the remaining state of charge (SOC) exist among batteries with different SOHs. These SOC differences lead to distinct trends in the resting voltage curves for varying SOH batteries. Our approach analyzes health features from these resting voltage discrepancies, ultimately achieving a fast estimation of retired batteries’ SOH. Additionally, during the data collection of datasets, some batteries may form outliers due to measurement errors. This paper analyzes the impact of outlier quantity on the accuracy of regression models for SOH estimation and proposes using the DBSCAN clustering algorithm to identify and mitigate the influence of outliers, eventually enhancing the precision of SOH estimation.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-08
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020066
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 67: Experimental Investigation of Phase Change
Material-Based Battery Pack Performance Under Elevated Ambient Temperature
Authors: Mohammad J. Ganji, Martin Agelin-Chaab, Marc A. Rosen
First page: 67
Abstract: This study experimentally assesses the thermal performance of a proposed phase change material (PCM)-based battery pack under elevated ambient temperatures. In addition, the novel approach of the research addresses scenarios where the ambient temperature reaches the PCM’s melting point while maintaining the initial temperature at the ideal operating point of 22 °C. The experiments employed nine 2500 mAh 18650 lithium-ion cells connected in series and subjected to constant-current discharges of 1C and 3C, with a conventional air-cooled system as the baseline and paraffin as the PCM. The results indicate that as the ambient temperature reached the PCM’s melting point, approximately 98% utilization of the PCM around the heating cell was achieved. Additionally, the PCM demonstrates noticeable advantages over the baseline by stabilizing the temperature profile and reducing the maximum temperature increase rate from over 18 °C in the baseline system to around 7 °C. Notably, under a high-load (3C) discharge rate, the PCM-based system successfully maintained battery temperatures below 42 °C, demonstrating its effectiveness under demanding operational scenarios. These findings establish a critical baseline for PCM-based BTMSs operating under elevated ambient temperatures and up to the melting point of the PCM, thereby informing future research and development of more efficient PCM-based thermal management solutions.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-08
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020067
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 68: The Sustainable and Green Management of
Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries Through Hydroxy Acid Recycling and Direct
Regeneration of Active Positive Electrode Material: A Review
Authors: Ambar B. Shrestha, Ananda S. Amarasekara
First page: 68
Abstract: The rapid increase in use of lithium-ion batteries in energy storage together with limited supply of critical metals used in batteries and environmental concerns have led to the urgent need for sustainable recycling technologies for these batteries. Li-ion battery chemistry, components, various designs, and two main approaches for recycling: pyrolysis and hydrometallurgical techniques are discussed in this review focusing on the novel, sustainable green approach of hydroxy acid leaching followed by a direct regeneration technique. This two-step emerging technique is compared with other conventional recycling methods in this critical review emphasizing simplicity and commercial potential. Current literature reporting rapid developments on this scalable process with pretreatment phases of sorting, discharging, disassembly of batteries, separation of electrode coatings from current collectors, leaching black mass with hydroxy carboxylic acids, separation of graphite, adjustments of Li, Ni, Mn, and Co compositions, and regeneration via co-precipitation or sol–gel formation techniques followed by pyrolysis are discussed in the detailed review. The conclusion section of this direct regeneration focused critical review gives an insight into challenges in hydroxy acid recycling and direct regeneration technology and practical solutions that may help in development into a mainstream technology.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-08
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020068
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 69: Heteroatom Doping Strategy of Advanced
Carbon for Alkali Metal-Ion Capacitors
Authors: Ti Yin, Yaqin Guo, Xing Huang, Xinya Yang, Leixin Qin, Tianxiang Ning, Lei Tan, Lingjun Li, Kangyu Zou
First page: 69
Abstract: Alkali metal-ion capacitors (AMICs) combine the advantages of the high specific energy of alkali metal-ion batteries (AMIBs) and the high power output of supercapacitors (SCs), which are considered highly promising and efficient energy storage devices. It is found that carbon has been the most widely used electrode material of AMICs due to its advantages of low cost, a large specific surface area, and excellent electrical conductivity. However, the application of carbon is limited by its low specific capacity, finite kinetic performance, and few active sites. Doping heteroatoms in carbon materials is an effective strategy to adjust their microstructures and improve their electrochemical storage performance, which effectively helps to increase the pseudo-capacitance, enhance the wettability, and increase the ionic migration rate. Moreover, an appropriate heteroatom doping strategy can purposefully guide the design of advanced AMICs. Herein, a systematic review of advanced heteroatom (N, S, P, and B)-doped carbon, which has acted as a positrode and negatrode in AMICs (M = Li, Na, and K) in recent years, has been summarized. Moreover, emphasis is placed on the mechanism of single-element doping versus two-element doping for the enhancement in the performance of carbon positrodes and negatrodes, and an introduction to the use of doped carbon in dual-carbon alkali metal-ion capacitors (DC-AMICs) is discussed. Finally, an outlook is given to solve the problems arising when using doped carbon materials in practical applications and future development directions are presented.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-08
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020069
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 70: Optimization of Size and Operation of
Stand-Alone Renewable-Based Systems with Diesel and Hybrid Pumped Hydro
Storage–Battery Storage Considering Uncertainties
Authors: Rodolfo Dufo-López, Juan M. Lujano-Rojas
First page: 70
Abstract: Currently, the electrical supply in stand-alone systems is usually composed of renewable sources with fossil-fuel generators and battery storage. This study shows a novel model for the metaheuristic–stochastic optimization (minimization of the net present cost, and NPC) of sizing and energy management for stand-alone photovoltaic (PV)–wind–diesel systems with hybrid pumped hydro storage (PHS)–battery storage systems. The model is implemented in C++ programming language. To optimize operations—thus reducing PHS losses and increasing battery lifetimes—optimal energy management can optimize the power limits of using the PHS or battery to supply or store energy. The probabilistic approach considers the variability of wind speed, irradiation, temperature, load, and diesel fuel price inflation. The variable efficiencies of the components and losses and advanced models for battery degradation are considered. This methodology was applied to Graciosa Island (Portugal), showing that, compared with the current system, the optimal system (with a much higher renewable power and a hybrid PHS–battery storage) can reduce the NPC by half, reduce life cycle emissions to 14%, expand renewable penetration to 96%, and reduce the reserve capacity shortage to zero.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-08
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020070
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 71: Review on Advancements in Carbon Nanotubes:
Synthesis, Purification, and Multifaceted Applications
Authors: Anil Kumar Madikere Raghunatha Reddy, Ali Darwiche, Mogalahalli Venkatashamy Reddy, Karim Zaghib
First page: 71
Abstract: Since their discovery over two decades ago, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have captivated researchers due to their exceptional electrical, optical, mechanical, and thermal properties, making them versatile candidates for various advanced applications. CNTs have transformed numerous scientific domains, including nanotechnology, electronics, materials science, and biomedical engineering. Their applications range from nanoelectronics, robust nanocomposites, and energy storage devices to innovative materials, sensors, conducting polymers, field emission sources, and Li-ion batteries. Furthermore, CNTs have found critical roles in biosensing, water purification, bone scaffolding, and targeted gene and drug delivery. The chemical reactivity and functional versatility of CNTs are profoundly influenced by their structural and physicochemical properties, such as surface area, surface charge, size distribution, surface chemistry, and purity. This review comprehensively explores the current state of CNT research, focusing on widely used synthesis, purification, and characterization techniques alongside emerging applications. By highlighting recent advancements and addressing unresolved challenges, it aims to present a novel perspective on the transformative potential of CNTs, fostering innovation across diverse scientific and technological fields.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-08
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020071
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 72: Comparative Analysis of Synthesis Routes and
Aluminum Doping Effects on Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt Type Cathode Material
Authors: Yu-Sheng Chen, Elena Tchernychova, Samo Hočevar, Robert Dominko, Władysław Wieczorek
First page: 72
Abstract: This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the synthesis techniques and the effects of aluminum doping on nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) 811 cathode materials. Our research focuses on the comparison of two different synthesis methods. Hydroxide co-precipitation is followed by solid-state calcination for polycrystalline (PC) cathodes and molten salt calcination for single-crystalline (SC) cathodes. In addition, the study systematically integrates aluminum dopants at different stages of these processes. This study aims to examine how various doping methods affect the structural characteristics, morphological features, and electrochemical performance of NMC cathodes.This investigation employs a thorough characterization approach, utilizing techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), various microscopy methods, and galvanostatic cycling tests, our results illustrate the complexity of the synthesis parameters that influence the capacity retention and performance of the samples produced.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-10
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020072
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 73: Lab-Scale X-Ray Exposure Has No Measurable
Impact on Lithium-Ion Battery Performance and Lifetime
Authors: Jinhong Min, Amariah Condon, Peter M. Attia
First page: 73
Abstract: X-ray characterization is broadly used in battery research, development, manufacturing, and quality control. However, the impact of lab-scale X-ray exposure on battery performance and lifetime is not well understood. In this work, we evaluate the impact of lab-scale X-rays on battery performance and lifetime. We tested groups of cylindrical 18650 cells using 2 min and 60 min X-ray imaging conditions; the performance and lifetime of these cells were identical to a control group without X-ray exposure. These results suggest that lab-scale X-ray characterization is safe for lithium-ion batteries.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-11
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020073
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 74: Bimetal/Li2Se Nanocomposite as Cathode
Prelithiation Additive for Sustainable High-Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Liu, Hu, Zhang, He, Guo, Qiao
First page: 74
Abstract: Cathodes undergo unavoidable lithium loss due to the formation of a solid electrolyte interface (SEI), which seriously affects the energy density of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries. To compensate for the initial capacity loss, we introduced an NiCo-Li2Se nanocomposite to an LFP battery system to act as a competitive cathode prelithiation additive. Benefiting from its zero gas-emissions, ambient stability, high irreversible capacity, low delithiation potential, and good compatibility with carbonate-based electrolytes, the NiCo-Li2Se additive based on the chemical conversion reaction effectively offset the initial lithium loss. As a result, with 10 wt% addition, the initial charge capacity of the Li LFP half-cell was improved by 34 mA h g−1. The Gra LFP-Li2Se full-cell released an initial discharge specific capacity of 159.7 mA h g−1, which increased by 18% compared with the Gra LFP full-cell, resulting in improved cycling stability. In addition, COMSOL Multiphysics simulation was applied to verify the function of the NiCo-Li2Se additive, and pouch cells were assembled to explore its potential in large-scale industrial application. This work provides a meaningful research direction for the design of a prelithiation additive for LFP cells.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-11
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020074
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 75: Comprehensive Investigation of the
Authors: Yuxin Tian, Liye Wang, Chenglin Liao, Guifu Yan
First page: 75
Abstract: Due to the large-scale use of renewable energy generation and its lack of inertia, the frequency of the grid is extremely unstable. At the same time, with the vigorous development of new energy vehicles, large-scale power batteries have huge potential for renewable energy consumption. In this context, the Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) method is proposed. Electric vehicles are used as energy storage systems to provide frequency regulation services as flexible power grid resources. However, when electric vehicles are invested in large-scale frequency regulation, their own power battery durability will also be affected. Based on this problem, the pseudo-two-dimensions (P2D) model of the battery was established in this paper, and the effects of temperature, state of charge (SOC), reported power, and frequency regulation conditions on battery capacity attenuation and negative potential distribution were explored through experiments and simulations.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-14
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020075
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 76: Forecasting Battery Cell Production in
Europe: A Risk Assessment Model
Authors: Tim Wicke, Lukas Weymann, Christoph Neef, Jens Tübke
First page: 76
Abstract: The increase in battery demand, particularly from the mobility sector, has resulted in a significant increase in the required production capacities. Europe is facing a large-scale expansion of production capacities. Currently, the battery cell demand in the region accounts for approximately 25% of global demand, while only 10% of global production capacities are located there. This has motivated the announcement of a large number of production projects of over 2 TWh by 2030, which would mean overcapacity compared to projected European cell demand. In recent years, however, many of the announced Gigafactories have been delayed or cancelled. This paper aims to develop a risk assessment model for forecasting realistic future capacities for battery cell production in Europe. The proposed model combines an evaluation of industry announcements at the project level with a Monte Carlo simulation to translate the announced production projects into a European production capacity forecast. Therefore, the likelihood of implementation for individual projects is analysed within 11 topics (company, country and maturity related) and scenarios for future European production capacities are elaborated. Model validation indicates that from 54% to 75% of the announced capacities in Europe are likely to be realised (approx. 1.2 GWh–1.7 GWh by 2030). The majority of battery production projects announced in Europe are still in the planning phase (66%) with Germany, France, Scandinavia and Eastern Europe emerging as key regions. The modelling of production capacities predicts that dependency on cell imports to Europe will be reduced compared to today.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-14
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020076
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 77: Inductor-Based Active Balancing Topology
with Wide Voltage Range Capability
Authors: Hourong Song, Branislav Hredzak, John Fletcher
First page: 77
Abstract: With the increasing number of batteries integrated into the grid, the electrification of transportation, and the importance of reusing secondary batteries to preserve natural resources, active balancing techniques are becoming critical for optimizing battery performance, ensuring safety, and extending their lifespan. There is a demand for battery management solutions that can efficiently manage the balancing of battery cells across a wide range of voltage levels. This paper proposes a new inductor-based active balancing topology that achieves balancing by transferring energy from battery cells to the battery pack. One of its main advantages over existing designs is that it can operate over a wide battery cell voltage range. Moreover, multicell balancing with a balancing current independent of the imbalance level can be achieved by adjusting the width and interval of pulses. The proposed topology can be implemented using traditional low-side gate driving integrated circuits, avoiding the need for expensive isolated power modules and high-side gate drivers. Sample balancer designs for low-voltage battery cells as well as higher-voltage cells are provided. The presented experimental results verify the operation of the proposed balancer on a lithium-ion battery pack.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-15
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020077
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 78: Advancements and Applications of Redox Flow
Batteries in Australia
Authors: Touma B. Issa, Jonovan Van Yken, Pritam Singh, Aleksandar N. Nikoloski
First page: 78
Abstract: Redox flow batteries (RFBs) are known for their exceptional attributes, including remarkable energy efficiency of up to 80%, an extended lifespan, safe operation, low environmental contamination concerns, sustainable recyclability, and easy scalability. One of their standout characteristics is the separation of electrolytes into two distinct tanks, isolating them from the electrochemical stack. This unique design allows for the separate design of energy capacity and power, offering a significantly higher level of adaptability and modularity compared to traditional technologies like lithium batteries. RFBs are also an improved technology for storing renewable energy in small or remote communities, benefiting from larger storage capacity, lower maintenance requirements, longer life, and more flexibility in scaling the battery system. However, flow batteries also have disadvantages compared to other energy storage technologies, including a lower energy density and the potential use of expensive or scarce materials. Despite these limitations, the potential benefits of flow batteries in terms of scalability, long cycle life, and cost effectiveness make them a key strategic technology for progressing to net zero. Specifically, in Australia, RFBs are good candidates for storing the increasingly large amount of energy generated from green sources such as photovoltaic panels and wind turbines. Additionally, the geographical distribution of the population around Australia makes large central energy storage economically and logistically difficult, but RFBs can offer a more locally tailored approach to overcome this. This review examines the status of RFBs and the viability of this technology for use in Australia.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-16
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020078
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 79: Vehicle–Grid Interaction Pricing
Optimization Considering Travel Probability and Battery Degradation to
Minimize Community Peak–Valley Load
Authors: Kun Wang, Yalun Li, Chaojie Xu, Peng Guo, Zhenlin Wu, Jiuyu Du
First page: 79
Abstract: Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology has been widely applied in recent years. Under the time-of-use pricing, users independently decide the charging and discharging behavior to maximize economic benefits, charging during low-price periods, discharging during high-electricity periods, and avoiding battery degradation. However, such behavior under inappropriate electricity prices can deviate from the grid’s goal of minimizing peak–valley load difference. Based on the basic electricity data of a community in Beijing and electricity vehicle (EV) random travel behavior obtained through Monte Carlo simulation, this study establishes a user optimal decision model that is influenced by battery degradation and electricity costs considering depth of discharge, charging rate, and charging energy loss. A mixed-integer linear programming algorithm with the objective of minimizing the cost of EV users is constructed to offer the participation power of V2G. By analyzing grid load fluctuations under different electricity pricing strategies, the study derives the formulation and adjustment rules for optimal electricity pricing that achieve ideal load stabilization. Under 30% V2G participation, the relative fluctuation of grid load is reduced from 31.81% to 5.19%. This study addresses the challenge of obtaining optimal electricity prices to guide users to participate in V2G to minimize the peak–valley load fluctuation.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-16
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020079
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 80: A Software/Hardware Framework for Efficient
and Safe Emergency Response in Post-Crash Scenarios of Battery Electric
Vehicles
Authors: Bo Zhang, Tanvir R. Tanim, David Black
First page: 80
Abstract: The adoption rate of battery electric vehicles (EVs) is rapidly increasing. Electric vehicles differ significantly from conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and vary widely across different manufacturers. Emergency responders (ERs) and recovery personnel may have less experience with EVs and lack timely access to critical information such as the extent of the stranded energy present, high-voltage safety hazards, and post-crash handling procedures in a user-friendly manner. This paper presents a software/hardware interactive tool named Electric Vehicle Information for Incident Response Solutions (EVIRS) to aid in the quick access to emergency response and recovery information. The current prototype of EVIRS identifies EVs using the VIN or Make, Model, and Year, and offers several useful features for ERs and recovery personnel. These features include integration and easy access to emergency response procedures tailored to an identified EV, vehicle structural schematics, the quick identification of battery pack specifications, and more. For EVs that are not severely damaged, EVIRS can perform calculations to estimate stranded energy in the EV’s battery and discharge time for various power loads using either EV dashboard information or operational data accessed through the CAN interface. Knowledge of this information may be helpful in the post-crash handling, management, and storage of an EV. The functionality and accuracy of EVIRS were demonstrated through laboratory tests using a 2021 Ford Mach-E and associated data acquisition system. The results indicated that when the remaining driving range was used as an input, EVIRS was able to estimate the pack voltage with an error of less than 3 V. Conversely, when pack voltage was used as an input, the estimated state of charge (SOC) error was less than 5% within the range of 30–90% SOC. Additionally, other features, such as retrieving emergency response guides for identified EVs and accessing lessons learned from archived incidents, have been successfully demonstrated through EVIRS for quick access. EVIRS can be a valuable tool for emergency responders and recovery personnel, both in action and during offline training, by providing crucial information related to assessing EV/battery safety risks, appropriate handling, de-energizing, transport, and storage in an integrated and user-friendly manner.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-16
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020080
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 81: Engineering Hierarchical Porous Electrodes
Integrated with Conformal Ultrathin Nanosheets for Achieving Rapid
Kinetics in High-Power Microbatteries
Authors: Xin Chen, Minjian Gong, Jiantao Li, Wei Yang, Xu Xu
First page: 81
Abstract: With the rapid development of the Internet of Things (IoT), there is an increasing demand for batteries with high energy and power densities. Three-dimensional microstructures present a promising approach for achieving high areal mass loading and an expanded electrochemical reaction surface. However, their high cost and complexity have hindered their widespread adoption. In this study, hierarchical porous electrodes integrated with conformal ultrathin nanosheets were fabricated to enhance reaction kinetics. The hierarchical porous skeleton provides a continuous pathway for electron transport and electrolyte diffusion, while the amorphous vanadium oxide (α-VOx) nanosheets offer short ion diffusion channels and a large electrochemical surface area. Additionally, the internal space of the hierarchical structure accommodates substantial growth of the α-VOx nanosheets, thereby supporting high mass loading and preserving areal capacity. The resulting hierarchical electrode structure demonstrates a high energy density of 0.49 mAh cm−2 at 1 mA cm−2 and an ultrahigh power density of 410 mW cm−2 at 250 mA cm−2. The assembled microbattery, using lithium metal as the anode, is encapsulated with a novel packaging process. This microbattery can power an electronic clock for up to 18 h on a single charge, retaining 75% of its initial capacity after 180 cycles.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-18
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020081
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 82: Advancements in Vibration Testing: Effects
on Thermal Performance and Degradation of Modern Batteries
Authors: Khursheed Sabeel, Maher Al-Greer, Imran Bashir
First page: 82
Abstract: Lithium-ion cells are increasingly being used as central power storage systems for modern applications, i.e., e-bikes, electric vehicles (EVs), satellites, and spacecraft, and they face significant and constant vibrations. This review examines how these vibrations affect the batteries’ mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. Vibrations can cause structural issues, such as the separation of electrodes and the deformation of separators. These problems raise internal resistance and lead to localized heat generation. As a result, thermal management becomes more complicated, battery aging accelerates, and safety risks arise, including short circuits and thermal runaways. To tackle these challenges, we need more realistic testing protocols that consider the combined effects of vibrations, temperature, and mechanical stress. Improving thermal management systems (TMSs) using advanced cooling techniques and materials, e.g., phase change solutions, can help to alleviate these problems. It is also essential to design batteries with vibration-resistant materials and enhanced structural integrity to boost their durability. Moreover, vibrations play a significant role in various degradation mechanisms, including dendrite formation, self-discharge, and lithium plating, all of which can reduce battery capacity and lifespan. Our current research builds on these insights using a multiscale physics-based modeling approach to investigate how vibrations interact with thermal behavior and contribute to battery degradation. By combining computational models with experimental data, we aim to develop strategies and tools to enhance lithium-ion batteries’ safety, reliability, and longevity in challenging environments.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-02-19
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11020082
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 2 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 14: Acoustic Emission Technique for Battery
Health Monitoring: Comprehensive Literature Review
Authors: Eliška Sedláčková, Anna Pražanová, Zbyněk Plachý, Nikola Klusoňová, Vaclav Knap, Karel Dušek
First page: 14
Abstract: The rapid adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has increased the demand for efficient methods to assess the state of health (SoH) of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Accurate and prompt evaluations are essential for safety, battery life extension, and performance optimization. While traditional techniques such as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) are commonly used to monitor battery degradation, acoustic emission (AE) analysis is emerging as a promising complementary method. AE’s sensitivity to mechanical changes within the battery structure offers significant advantages, including speed and non-destructive assessment, enabling evaluations without disassembly. This capability is particularly beneficial for diagnosing second-life batteries and streamlining decision-making regarding the management of used batteries. Moreover, AE enhances diagnostics by facilitating early detection of potential issues, optimizing maintenance, and improving the reliability and longevity of battery systems. Importantly, AE is a non-destructive technique and belongs to the passive method category, as it does not introduce any external energy into the system but instead detects naturally occurring acoustic signals during the battery’s operation. Integrating AE with other analytical techniques can create a comprehensive tool for continuous battery condition monitoring and predictive maintenance, which is crucial in applications where battery reliability is vital, such as in EVs and energy storage systems. This review not only examines the potential of AE techniques in battery health monitoring but also underscores the need for further research and adoption of these techniques, encouraging the academic community and industry professionals to explore and implement these methods.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-01
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010014
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 15: A Reduced-Order Model of
Lithium–Sulfur Battery Discharge
Authors: Noushin Haddad, Hosam K. Fathy
First page: 15
Abstract: This paper examines the problem of modeling lithium–sulfur (Li-S) battery discharge dynamics. The importance of this problem stems from the attractive specific energy levels achievable by Li-S batteries, which can be particularly appealing for applications such as aviation electrification. Previous research presents different Li-S battery models, including “zero-dimensional” models that neglect diffusion while using the laws of electrochemistry to represent reduction–oxidation (redox) rates. Zero-dimensional models typically succeed in capturing key features of Li-S battery discharge, including the high plateau, low plateau, and dip point visible in the discharge curves of certain Li-S battery chemistries. However, these models’ use of one state variable to represent the mass of each active species tends to furnish high-order models, with many state variables. This increases the computational complexity of model-based estimation and optimal control. The main contribution of this paper is to develop low-order state-space model of Li-S battery discharge. Specifically, the paper starts with a seventh-order zero-dimensional model of Li-S discharge dynamics, analyzes its discharge behavior, constructs phenomenological second- and third-order models capable of replicating this behavior, and parameterizes these models. The proposed models succeed in capturing battery discharge behavior accurately over a wide range of discharge rates. To the best of our knowledge, these are two of the simplest published models capable of doing so.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-02
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010015
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 16: Magnesium Alginate as an Electrolyte for
Magnesium Batteries
Authors: Markus C. Kwakernaak, Lindah K. Kiriinya, Walter J. Legerstee, Winok M. J. Berghmans, Caspar G. T. Hofman, Erik M. Kelder
First page: 16
Abstract: We present magnesium alginate as an aqueous polymer electrolyte for use in magnesium batteries. Alginates are polysaccharides extracted from algae, which form hydrogel materials upon interaction with divalent and trivalent cations. They are renewable, non-toxic, biocompatible materials that are widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Mg2+ is weakly bound to an alginate polymer, which results in a hydrogel-like material that contains mobile magnesium ions. We propose that this is the ideal situation for an electrolyte that behaves in a similar way as a ‘water-in-salt’ system. Magnesium alginate was successfully synthesized and characterized by FTIR, XRD, and PDF. Ionic conductivity was measured with EIS measurements; a 2 wt% magnesium electrolyte shows a conductivity of 1.8 mS/cm. During conductivity experiments, we noticed the formation of a black layer on magnesium electrodes, which can improve the ionic conductivity between the electrodes. We carefully characterized this layer with XPS and saw that it mainly consists of alginate derivatives.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-03
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010016
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 17: Advanced Machine Learning and Deep Learning
Approaches for Estimating the Remaining Life of EV Batteries—A
Review
Authors: Daniel H. de la Iglesia, Carlos Chinchilla Corbacho, Jorge Zakour Dib, Vidal Alonso-Secades, Alfonso J. López Rivero
First page: 17
Abstract: This systematic review presents a critical analysis of advanced machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) approaches for predicting the remaining useful life (RUL) of electric vehicle (EV) batteries. Conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines and using a novel adaptation of the Downs and Black (D&B) scale, this study evaluates 89 research papers and provides insights into the evolving landscape of RUL estimation. Our analysis reveals an evolving landscape of methodological approaches, with different techniques showing distinct capabilities in capturing complex degradation patterns in EV batteries. While recent years have seen increased adoption of DL methods, the effectiveness of different approaches varies significantly based on application context and data characteristics. However, we also uncover critical challenges, including a lack of standardized evaluation metrics, prevalent overfitting problems, and limited dataset sizes, that hinder the field’s progress. To address these, we propose a comprehensive set of evaluation metrics and emphasize the need for larger and more diverse datasets. The review introduces an innovative clustering approach that provides a nuanced understanding of research trends and methodological gaps. In addition, we discuss the ethical implications of DL in RUL estimation, addressing concerns about privacy and algorithmic bias. By synthesizing current knowledge, identifying key research directions, and suggesting methodological improvements, this review serves as a central guide for researchers and practitioners in the rapidly evolving field of EV battery management. It not only contributes to the advancement of RUL estimation techniques but also sets a new standard for conducting systematic reviews in technology-driven fields, paving the way for more sustainable and efficient EV technologies.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-03
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010017
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 18: Numerical Simulation of Impact of Different
Redox Couples on Flow Characteristics and Electrochemical Performance of
Deep Eutectic Solvent Electrolyte Flow Batteries
Authors: Zhiyuan Xiao, Ruiping Zhang, Mengyue Lu, Qiang Ma, Zhuo Li, Huaneng Su, Huanhuan Li, Qian Xu
First page: 18
Abstract: A comprehensive, three-dimensional, macro-scale model was developed to simulate non-aqueous deep eutectic solvent (DES) electrolyte flow batteries. The model’s feasibility was validated by comparing the simulated polarization data with the experimental results. Utilizing this model, the work reported here compared the flow characteristics and electrochemical properties of electrolytes with different redox couples within the porous electrodes of the batteries. Despite variations in the active materials, the distribution of the electrolyte flow rate showed uniformity due to consistent electrode and flow channel designs, indicating that the structural design of electrodes and channels has a more significant impact on electrolyte flow than the physicochemical properties of the electrolytes themselves. This study also highlighted that TEMPO and Quinoxaline DES electrolytes exhibited less flow resistance and more uniform concentration distributions, which helped reduce overpotentials and enhance battery energy efficiency. Furthermore, this research identified that the highest average overpotentials occurred near the membrane for all the redox couples, demonstrating that electrochemical reactions in DES electrolyte flow batteries primarily occur in the region close to the membrane. This finding underscores the importance of optimizing active redox ions transport in electrolytes to enhance electrochemical reactions in the proximal membrane region, which is crucial for improving flow battery performance.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-07
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010018
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 19: A Millimeter-Resolution Operando Thermal
Image of Prismatic Li-Ion Batteries Using a Distributed Optical Fiber
Sensor
Authors: Zhen Guo, Mina Abedi Varnosfaderani, Calum Briggs, Erdogan Guk, James Marco
First page: 19
Abstract: With the demand for energy gravimetric and volumetric density in electrical vehicles, lithium-ion batteries are undergoing a trend toward larger formats, along with maximized cell-to-pack efficiency. Current battery thermal management systems and battery modeling, relying on point measurement (thermocouples/thermistors), face challenges in providing comprehensive characterization for larger batteries and extensive monitoring across the pack. Here, we proposed a novel Rayleigh-scattering-based distributed optical fiber sensor to deliver thermal images of a large prismatic cell. Using an optical fiber of 1 mm diameter wrapped around the cell, the optical sensor delivered over 400 unique measurement locations at 3 mm spatial resolution. During a 1.0 C charge, the optical-measured maximum temperature difference was 8.2 °C, while point-like thermocouples, located at the cell front surface and rear surface center, only had a 0.8 °C maximum temperature difference. Moreover, the all-surface-covered optical sensor identified hotspot generation around the vicinity of the tabs, highlighting the essential role of tabs. The maximum temperature on the negative current tab reached 113.9 °C during a 1.5 C discharge, while the hottest spot on the cell surface was only 52.1 °C. This was further validated by the operando thermal image in both the time domain and the spatial domain, facilitating a detailed analysis of the thermal-behavior-like heat generation on the current tabs, transmission through the surface, and dissipation to the cell bottom.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-08
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010019
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 20: Cell Architecture Design for Fast-Charging
Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles
Authors: Firoozeh Yeganehdoust, Anil Kumar Madikere Raghunatha Reddy, Karim Zaghib
First page: 20
Abstract: This paper reviews the growing demand for and importance of fast and ultra-fast charging in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for electric vehicles (EVs). Fast charging is critical to improving EV performance and is crucial in reducing range concerns to make EVs more attractive to consumers. We focused on the design aspects of fast- and ultra-fast-charging LIBs at different levels, from internal cell architecture, through cell design, to complete system integration within the vehicle chassis. This paper explores battery internal cell architecture, including how the design of electrodes, electrolytes, and other factors may impact battery performance. Then, we provide a detailed review of different cell format characteristics in cylindrical, prismatic, pouch, and blade shapes. Recent trends, technological advancements in tab design and placement, and shape factors are discussed with a focus on reducing ion transport resistance and enhancing energy density. In addition to cell-level modifications, pack and chassis design must be implemented across aspects such as safety, mechanical integrity, and thermal management. Considering the requirements and challenges of high-power charging systems, we examined how modules, packs, and the vehicle chassis should be adapted to provide fast and ultra-fast charging. In this way, we explored the potential of fast and ultra-fast charging by investigating the required modification of individual cells up to their integration into the EV system through pack and chassis design.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-08
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010020
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 21: Adaptive Transfer Learning Strategy for
Predicting Battery Aging in Electric Vehicles
Authors: Daniela Galatro, Manav Shroff, Cristina H. Amon
First page: 21
Abstract: This work presents an adaptive transfer learning approach for predicting the aging of lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) in electric vehicles using capacity fade as the metric for the battery state of health. The proposed approach includes a similarity-based and adaptive strategy in which selected data from an original dataset are transferred to a clean dataset based on the combined/weighted similarity contribution of feature and stress factor similarities and times series similarities. Transfer learning (TL) is then performed by pre-training a model with clean data, with frozen weights and biases to the hidden layer. At the same time, weights and biases toward the output node are recalculated with the target data. The error reduction lies between −0.4% and −8.3% for 20 computational experiments, attesting to the effectiveness and robustness of our adaptive TL approach. Considerations for data structure and representation learning are presented, as well as a workflow to enhance the application of transfer learning for predicting aging in LiBs.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-09
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010021
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 22: A State-of-Health Estimation Method of a
Lithium-Ion Power Battery for Swapping Stations Based on a Transformer
Framework
Authors: Yu Shi, Haicheng Xie, Xinhong Wang, Xiaoming Lu, Jing Wang, Xin Xu, Dingheng Wang, Siyan Chen
First page: 22
Abstract: Against the backdrop of automobile electrification, an increasing number of battery-swapping stations for electric vehicles have been launched to address the issue of slow battery charging under cold temperature conditions. However, due to the separation of the discharging and charging processes for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) at swapping stations, and the circulation of batteries across different vehicles and stations, the operating data become fragmented, making it difficult to accurately identify the battery state-of-health (SOH). This study proposes a BiLSTM-Transformer framework that extracts the Constant Voltage Time (CVT) feature using only charging data, enabling the precise estimation of battery capacity degradation. Validation experiments conducted on battery samples under different operating temperatures showed that the model achieved a normalized RMSE of less than 1.6%. In ideal conditions, the normalized RMSE of the estimation reached as low as 0.11%. This model enables SOH estimation without relying on discharge data, contributing to the efficient and safe operation of battery swapping stations.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-11
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010022
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 23: Comparative Study on Environmental Impact of
Electric Vehicle Batteries from a Regional and Energy Perspective
Authors: Ruiqi Feng, Wei Guo, Chenjie Zhang, Yuxuan Nie, Jiajing Li
First page: 23
Abstract: Against the backdrop of the global goal of “carbon neutrality”, the advancement of electric vehicles (EVs) holds substantial importance for diminishing the reliance on fossil fuels, mitigating vehicular emissions, and fostering the transition of the automotive sector towards a sustainable, low-carbon paradigm. The wide application of electric vehicles not only reduces the dependence on non-renewable resources such as oil, but also concurrently effectuates a substantial reduction in carbon emissions within the transportation sector. In the realm of electric vehicles, ternary lithium batteries (NCM) and lithium iron phosphate batteries (LFP) are two widely used batteries. This study examines the resource utilization and environmental repercussions associated with the production of 1 kW ternary lithium batteries and lithium iron phosphate batteries, employing a life cycle assessment (LCA) framework. The importance of clean energy in reducing environmental pollution and global warming potential is revealed by introducing five different power generation types and the regional power generation structure in China into the power battery production process. The findings of the investigation indicate that lithium iron phosphate batteries exhibit pronounced superiority in terms of environmental sustainability, while ternary lithium batteries are more advantageous in terms of performance. The mitigation of environmental pollution associated with battery production can be significantly achieved by the holistic integration of clean energy sources and the systematic optimization of manufacturing processes. Specific interventions encompass enhancing the energy efficiency of the production process, incorporating renewable energy sources for power generation, and minimizing the utilization of hazardous materials. By implementing these strategies, the battery sector can advance towards a more environmentally benign and sustainable trajectory.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-11
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010023
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 24: Research on the Thermal Runaway Behavior and
Flammability Limits of Sodium-Ion and Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Changbao Qi, Hewu Wang, Minghai Li, Cheng Li, Yalun Li, Chao Shi, Ningning Wei, Yan Wang, Huipeng Zhang
First page: 24
Abstract: Batteries are widely used in energy storage systems (ESS), and thermal runaway in different types of batteries presents varying safety risks. Therefore, comparative research on the thermal runaway behaviors of various batteries is essential. This study investigates the thermal runaway characteristics of sodium-ion batteries (NIBs), lithium iron phosphate batteries (LFP), and lithium-ion batteries with NCM523 and NCM622 cathodes. The experiments were conducted in a nitrogen-filled constant-volume sealed chamber. The results show that the critical surface temperatures at the time of thermal runaway are as follows: LFP (346 °C) > NIBs (292 °C) > NCM523 (290 °C) > NCM622 (281 °C), with LFP batteries exhibiting the highest thermal runaway critical temperature. NIBs have the lowest thermal runaway triggering energy (158 kJ), while LFP has the highest (592.8 kJ). During the thermal runaway of all four battery types, the primary gases produced include carbon dioxide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, ethylene, propylene, and ethane. For NCM622 and NCM523, carbon monoxide is the dominant combustible gas, with volume fractions of 35% and 29%, respectively. In contrast, hydrogen is the main flammable gas for LFP and NIBs, with volume fractions of 44% and 30%, respectively. Among these, NIBs have the lowest lower flammability limit (LFL), indicating the highest explosion risk. The thermal runaway characteristics of 50 Ah batteries provide valuable insights for battery selection and design in energy storage applications.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-12
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010024
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 25: Investigation of the Suitability of the DTV
Method for the Online SoH Estimation of NMC Lithium-Ion Cells in Battery
Management Systems
Authors: Jan Neunzling, Philipp Hainke, Hanno Winter, David Henriques, Matthias Fleckenstein, Torsten Markus
First page: 25
Abstract: Investigating the temperature behavior of lithium-ion battery cells has become an important part of today’s research and development. The main reason for this is that the temperature profile of a battery cell changes during aging. By using Differential Thermal Voltammetry (DTV), new possibilities are opened up, especially since this diagnostic method is designed to work in operando by only requiring voltage and temperature readings. In this study, a batch of NMC-21700 cells were aged in calendar and cyclic manners. After a specified aging cycle was complete, a check-up measurement was performed. During this time, the cycler collected the electrical measuring values, while a negative temperature coefficient thermistor, which was located on the cell, was used to record the temperature fluctuations. The data were then evaluated by using the DTV analysis technique. By comparing the characteristic points of DTV, correlations between the changing curve characteristics and the capacity loss, and therefore the aging of the respective cell, were established. Based on these results, a simple model suitable for online State of Health (SoH) is derived and validated, showing an estimation accuracy of 1.1%.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-13
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010025
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 26: A Study on the Differences in Optimized
Inputs of Various Data-Driven Methods for Battery Capacity Prediction
Authors: Kuo Xin, Fu Jia, Byoungik Choi, Geesoo Lee
First page: 26
Abstract: As lithium-ion batteries become increasingly popular worldwide, accurately determining their capacity is crucial for various devices that rely on them. Numerous data-driven methods have been applied to evaluate battery-related parameters. In the application of these methods, input features play a critical role. Most researchers often use the same input features to compare the performance of various neural network models. However, because most models are regarded as black-box models, different methods may show different dependencies on specific features given the inherent differences in their internal structures. And the corresponding optimal inputs of different neural network models should be different. Therefore, comparing the differences in optimized input features for different neural networks is essential. This paper extracts 11 types of lithium battery-related health features, and experiments are conducted on two traditional machine learning networks and three advanced deep learning networks in three aspects of input differences. The experiment aims to systematically evaluate how changes in health feature types, dimensions, and data volume affect the performance of different methods and find the optimal input for each method. The results demonstrate that each network has its own optimal input in the aspects of health feature types, dimensions, and data volume. Moreover, under the premise of obtaining more accurate prediction accuracy, different networks have different requirements for input data. Therefore, in the process of using different types of neural networks for battery capacity prediction, it is very important to determine the type, dimension, and number of input health features according to the structure, category, and actual application requirements of the network. Different inputs will lead to larger differences in results. The optimization degree of mean absolute error (MAE) can be improved by 10–50%, and other indicators can also be optimized to varying degrees. Therefore, it is very important to optimize the network in a targeted manner.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-13
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010026
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 27: Unravelling Lithium Interactions in
Non-Flammable Gel Polymer Electrolytes: A Density Functional Theory and
Molecular Dynamics Study
Authors: Nasser AL-Hamdani, Paula V. Saravia, Javier Luque Di Salvo, Sergio A. Paz, Giorgio De Luca
First page: 27
Abstract: Lithium metal batteries (LiMBs) have emerged as extremely viable options for next-generation energy storage owing to their elevated energy density and improved theoretical specific capacity relative to traditional lithium batteries. However, safety concerns, such as the flammability of organic liquid electrolytes, have limited their extensive application. In the present study, we utilize molecular dynamics and Density Functional Theory based simulations to investigate the Li interactions in gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs), composed of a 3D cross-linked polymer matrix combined with two different non-flammable electrolytes: 1 M lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) in ethylene carbonate (EC)/dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and 1 M lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI) in trimethyl phosphate (TMP) solvents. The findings derived from radial distribution functions, coordination numbers, and interaction energy calculations indicate that Li⁺ exhibits an affinity with solvent molecules and counter-anions over the functional groups on the polymer matrix, highlighting the preeminent influence of electrolyte components in Li⁺ solvation and transport. Furthermore, the second electrolyte demonstrated enhanced binding energies, implying greater ionic stability and conductivity relative to the first system. These findings offer insights into the Li+ transport mechanism at the molecular scale in the GPE by suggesting that lithium-ion transport does not occur by hopping between polymer functional groups but by diffusion into the solvent/counter anion system. The information provided in the work allows for the improvement of the design of electrolytes in LiMBs to augment both safety and efficiency.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-14
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010027
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 28: S, Se-Codoped Dual Carbon Coating and Se
Substitution in Co-Alkoxide-Derived CoS2 Through SeS2 Triggered
Selenization for High-Performance Sodium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Kaiqin Li, Yuqi Kang, Chengjiang Deng, Yanfeng Wang, Haocun Ba, Qi An, Xiaoyan Han, Shaozhuan Huang
First page: 28
Abstract: The development of metal sulfides as anodes for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) is significantly obstructed by the slow kinetics of the electrochemical reactions and the substantial volume changes on the cycling. Herein, we introduce a selenium-substituted cobalt disulfide embedded within a dual carbon–graphene framework (Se-CoS2/C@rGO) for high-performance SIBs. The Se-CoS2/C@rGO was prepared via a synchronous sulfurization/selenization strategy using Co-alkoxide as the precursor and SeS2 as the source of selenium and sulfur, during which the EG anions are converted in situ to a S, Se codoped carbon scaffold. The dual carbon–graphene matrix not only improves the electronic conductivity but also stabilizes the electrode material effectively. In addition, the Se substitution within the CoS2 lattice further improves the electrical conductivity and promotes the Na+ reaction kinetics. The enhanced intrinsic electronic/ionic conductivity and reinforced structural stability endow the Se-CoS2/C@rGO anode with a high reversible capacity (558.2 mAh g−1 at 0.2 A g−1), superior rate performance (351 mAh g−1 at 20 A g−1), and long cycle life (93.5% capacity retention after 2100 cycles at 1 A g−1). This work provides new insights into the development of stable and reversible anode materials through Se substitution and dual carbon encapsulation.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-15
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010028
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 29: Enhancing Mass Transport in Organic Redox
Flow Batteries Through Electrode Obstacle Design
Authors: Joseba Martínez-López, Unai Fernández-Gamiz, Eduardo Sánchez-Díez, Aitor Beloki-Arrondo, Íñigo Ortega-Fernández
First page: 29
Abstract: This study examines the impact of incorporating obstacles in the electrode structure of an organic redox flow battery with a flow-through configuration. Two configurations were compared: A control case without obstacles (Case 1) and a modified design with obstacles to enhance mass transport and uniformity (Case 2). While Case 1 exhibited marginally higher discharge voltages (average difference of 0.18%) due to reduced hydraulic resistance and lower Ohmic losses, Case 2 demonstrated significant improvements in concentration uniformity, particularly at low state-of-charge (SOC) levels. The obstacle design mitigated local depletion of active species, thereby enhancing limiting current density and improving minimum concentration values across the studied SOC range. However, the introduction of obstacles increased flow resistance and pressure drops, indicating a trade-off between electrochemical performance and pumping energy requirements. Notably, Case 2 performed better at lower flow rates, showcasing its potential to optimize efficiency under varying operating conditions. At higher flow rates, the advantages of Case 2 diminished but remained evident, with better concentration uniformity, higher minimum concentration values, and a 1% average increase in limiting current density. Future research should focus on optimizing obstacle geometry and positioning to further enhance performance.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-16
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010029
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 30: On the Performance of Portable NiMH
Batteries of General Use
Authors: Diego F. Quintero Pulido, Catalin Felix Covrig, Matthias Bruchhausen
First page: 30
Abstract: NiMH batteries are the most used technology of rechargeable batteries sold directly to consumers. Herein, we study the performance of the most common sizes of portable NiMH batteries (AA, AAA, D, C, and 9V). The performance and durability parameters—capacity, charge retention, charge recovery, and endurance in cycles—are measured for these types of batteries, according to the standard IEC 61951-2:2017 NiMH batteries. The purpose of this study is to create a basis for setting minimum performance requirements for the parameters in the European Regulation concerning batteries and waste batteries, EU 2023/1542, Annex III, Part B. Results show that the charging time of 16 h could be reduced to 8 h for verifying the rated capacity. The performance of commercial batteries with regard to charge retention, charge recovery, and endurance in cycles is often found to be 25–30% better than required in the relevant IEC standard. Furthermore, we present a short comparative analysis of an application test (IEC 60086-2:2021 “toy”) for portable NiMH batteries with primary batteries. Such data allow comparing the performance of portable NiMH batteries compared to primary batteries in the application test “toy”.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-16
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010030
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 31: Battery Health Monitoring and Remaining
Useful Life Prediction Techniques: A Review of Technologies
Authors: Mohamed Ahwiadi, Wilson Wang
First page: 31
Abstract: Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries have become essential in modern industries and domestic applications due to their high energy density and efficiency. However, they experience gradual degradation over time, which presents significant challenges in maintaining optimal battery performance and increases the risk of unexpected system failures. To ensure the reliability and longevity of Li-ion batteries in applications, various methods have been proposed for battery health monitoring and remaining useful life (RUL) prediction. This paper provides a comprehensive review and analysis of the primary approaches employed for battery health monitoring and RUL estimation under the categories of model-based, data-driven, and hybrid methods. Generally speaking, model-based methods use physical or electrochemical models to simulate battery behaviour, which offers valuable insights into the principles that govern battery degradation. Data-driven techniques leverage historical data, AI, and machine learning algorithms to identify degradation trends and predict RUL, which can provide flexible and adaptive solutions. Hybrid approaches integrate multiple methods to enhance predictive accuracy by combining the physical insights of model-based methods with the statistical and analytical strengths of data-driven techniques. This paper thoroughly evaluates these methodologies, focusing on recent advancements along with their respective strengths and limitations. By consolidating current findings and highlighting potential pathways for advancement, this review paper serves as a foundational resource for researchers and practitioners working to advance battery health monitoring and RUL prediction methods across both academic and industrial fields.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-17
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010031
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 32: State of Charge and State of Health
Estimation in Electric Vehicles: Challenges, Approaches and Future
Directions
Authors: Babatunde D. Soyoye, Indranil Bhattacharya, Mary Vinolisha Anthony Dhason, Trapa Banik
First page: 32
Abstract: This critical review paper delves into the complex and evolving landscape of the state of health (SOH) and state of charge (SOC) in electric vehicles (EVs), highlighting the pressing need for accurate battery management to enhance safety, efficiency, and longevity. With the global shift towards EVs, understanding and improving battery performance has become crucial. The paper systematically explores various SOC estimation techniques, emphasizing their importance akin to that of a fuel gauge in traditional vehicles, and addresses the challenges in accurately determining SOC given the intricate electrochemical nature of batteries. It also discusses the imperative of SOH estimation, a less defined but critical parameter reflecting battery health and longevity. The review presents a comprehensive taxonomy of current SOC estimation methods in EVs, detailing the operation of each type and succinctly discussing the advantages and disadvantages of these methods. Furthermore, it scrutinizes the difficulties in applying different SOC techniques to battery packs, offering insights into the challenges posed by battery aging, temperature variations, and charge–discharge cycles. By examining an array of approaches—from traditional methods such as look-up tables and direct measurements to advanced model-based and data-driven techniques—the paper provides a holistic view of the current state and potential future of battery management systems (BMS) in EVs. It concludes with recommendations and future directions, aiming to bridge the gap for researchers, scientists, and automotive manufacturers in selecting optimal battery management and energy management strategies.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-17
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010032
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 33: Recycling of Lithium Iron Phosphate
(LiFePO4) Batteries from the End Product Quality Perspective
Authors: Deise F. Barbosa de Barbosa de Mattos, Simon Duda, Martina Petranikova
First page: 33
Abstract: As efforts towards greener energy and mobility solutions are constantly increasing, so is the demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Their growing market implies an increasing generation of hazardous waste, which contains large amounts of electrolyte, which is often corrosive and flammable and releases toxic gases, and critical raw materials that are indispensable to the renewable energy sector, such as lithium. Therefore, it is crucial that end-of-life LIBs be recycled in a viable way to avoid environmental pollution and to ensure the reuse of valuable materials that would otherwise be lost. Here, we present a critical review of recent developments in the field of LIB recycling with the LiFePO4 (LFP) chemistry, which is one of the fastest-growing fields, especially in the electromobility sector. Most of the recycling methods developed are not applied industrially due to issues such as complexity, cost, or low quality of the recycled product. This last issue is rarely discussed in the literature, which motivated the creation of this review article, with emphasis on the positive electrode recycling by the direct method and on the quality of the resynthesized LFP in terms of electrochemical performance.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-18
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010033
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 34: Analysis of Aging and Degradation in Lithium
Batteries Using Distribution of Relaxation Time
Authors: Muhammad Sohaib, Abdul Shakoor Akram, Woojin Choi
First page: 34
Abstract: In this paper, the deconvolution of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) data into the Distribution of Relaxation Times (DRTs) is employed to provide a detailed examination of degradation mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries. Using an nth RC model with Gaussian functions, this study achieves enhanced separation of overlapping electrochemical processes where Gaussian functions yield smoother transitions and clearer peak identification than conventional piecewise linear functions. The advantages of employing Tikhonov Regularization (TR) with Gaussian functions over Maximum Entropy (ME) and FFT methods are highlighted as this approach provides superior noise resilience, unbiased analysis, and enhanced resolution of critical features. This approach is applied to LIB cell data to identify characteristic peaks of the DRT plot and evaluate their correlation with battery degradation. By observing how these peaks evolve through cycles of battery aging, insights into specific aging mechanisms and performance decline are obtained. This study combines experimental measurements with DRT peak analysis to characterize the impedance distribution within LIBs which enables accelerated detection of degradation pathways and enhances the predictive accuracy for battery life and reliability. This analysis contributes to a refined understanding of LIB degradation behavior, supporting the development of advanced battery management systems designed to improve safety, optimize battery performance, and extend the operational lifespan of LIBs for various applications.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-19
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010034
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 35: Different Metal–Air Batteries as Range
Extenders for the Electric Vehicle Market: A Comparative Study
Authors: Yasmin Shabeer, Seyed Saeed Madani, Satyam Panchal, Mahboubeh Mousavi, Michael Fowler
First page: 35
Abstract: Metal–air batteries represent a category of energy storage system that leverages the reaction between metal and oxygen from the atmosphere to produce electricity. These batteries, known for their high energy density, have attracted considerable attention as potential solutions for extending the range of electric vehicles. Understanding the capabilities and limitations of metal-air batteries as range extenders is crucial for advancing electric vehicle technology, as these batteries could offer the additional energy needed to overcome current range limitations. This review paper provides a detailed overview of various metal-air battery technologies, delving into their design, functionality, and inherent challenges. By analyzing key theoretical and practical parameters, the study highlights how these factors influence overall battery performance. Additionally, the review addresses critical cost considerations, particularly the relationship between vehicle cost and driving range, uncovering the significant trade-offs involved in adopting metal-air batteries. Through an examination of nearly all the existing metal-air batteries, this paper sheds light on their potential to serve as effective range extenders, thereby facilitating the transition to a cleaner, more sustainable transportation landscape.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-20
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010035
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 36: Modification of Cellulose by Esterification
Crosslinking to Manipulate Its Microstructure for Enhanced Sodium Storage
in Hard Carbon
Authors: Xingyun Zhang, Yue Hu, Yan Wang, Ming Li, Cuiying Lu, Shixiong Sun, Junwei Lang
First page: 36
Abstract: The active hydroxyl group of cellulose plays a crucial role in regulating the microstructure of cellulose-derived hard carbon, which ultimately affects its sodium storage capacity. Through small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and X-ray atomic pair distribution function (PDF) analysis, we proved that modification of cellulose by esterification crosslinking can introduce more closed pores into the carbonized hard carbon, which is beneficial for promoting sodium ion storage. Our results demonstrate that by optimizing the conditions used for esterification cross-linking modification, the sodium storage capacity of cellulose-derived hard carbon could be increased from 254 to 348 mAh g−1, with an increase in plateau capacity from 140 to 230 mAh g−1. This study makes a significant contribution towards establishing industrial applications for cellulose-derived hard carbon.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-20
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010036
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 37: Composites Based on Poly(ortho-toluidine)
and WS2 Sheets for Applications in the Supercapacitor Field
Authors: Teodora Burlanescu, Ion Smaranda, Andreea Androne, Cristina Stefania Florica, Madalina Cercel, Mirela Paraschiv, Adelina Udrescu, Adam Lőrinczi, Petru Palade, Andrei Galatanu, Catalin Negrila, Elena Matei, Monica Dinescu, Radu Cercel, Mihaela Baibarac
First page: 37
Abstract: In this work, three methods for the synthesis of composites based on poly(ortho-toluidine) (POT) and WS2 are reported: (a) the solid-state interaction (SSI) of POT with WS2 nanoparticles (NPs); (b) the in situ chemical polymerization (ICP) of ortho-toluidine (OT); and (c) the electrochemical polymerization (ECP) of OT. The preparation of WS2 sheets was performed by the ball milling of the WS2 NPs followed by ultrasonication in the solvent N,N’-dimethyl formamide. During the synthesis of the POT/WS2 composites by SSI and ICP, an additional exfoliation of the WS2 NPs was reported. In this work, we demonstrated the following: (a) the ICP method leads to POT/WS2 composites, which contain repeating units of POT in the leucoemeraldine salt (LS) state, while (b) the ECP method leads to POT/WS2 composites, which contain repeating units of POT in the emeraldine salt (ES) state. Capacitances equal to 123.5, 465.76, and 751.6 mF cm−2 in the cases of POT-ES/WS2 composites, synthesized by SSI, ICP, and ECP, respectively, were reported.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-20
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010037
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 38: Design Analysis of 26650 and 18650 LFP Cells
for High Power and Low Temperature Use Cases
Authors: Florian Wätzold, Anton Schlösser, Max Leistikow, Julia Kowal
First page: 38
Abstract: This study investigates the design and geometric properties of high-power and low-temperature 18650 and 26650 lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cells. The analysis focuses on the geometry and components’ thicknesses and deriving CAD models for both cell formats. Design variations were observed, even within cells from the same manufacturer. For instance, one manufacturer’s 26650 cell was not a scaled-up version of their 18650 cell, and no equivalence was found between the designs of high-power and low-temperature cells from the same manufacturer. Thus, modifications are not purely chemistry based. The results also reveal deviations from the literature values for jelly roll component thicknesses, with anode current collectors averaging 61 µm and cathode current collectors averaging 60 µm. Coating thicknesses varied, with anode coatings averaging 32 µm and cathode coatings averaging 52 µm. These variations in current collector and coating thicknesses suggest that both high-power and low-temperature LFP cell designs differ from the typical literature values. Furthermore, a trade-off was observed between low-temperature operation with two-tab designs and high pulse capability with limited minimum operating temperatures. Additionally, smaller particle sizes in anode coatings were associated with lower impedance.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2025-01-20
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010038
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2025)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 10: Nanoporous Carbon Coatings Direct Li
Electrodeposition Morphology and Performance in Li Metal Anode Batteries
Authors: Harrison, Goriparti, Long, Martin, Warren, Merrill, Wolak, Sananes, Siegal
First page: 10
Abstract: Li metal anodes could significantly improve battery energy density. However, Li generally electrodeposits in poorly controlled morphology, leading to safety and performance problems. One factor that controls Li anode performance and electrodeposition morphology is the nature of the electrolyte–current collector interface. Herein, we modify the Cu current collector interface by depositing precisely controlled nanoporous carbon (NPC) coatings using pulsed laser deposition to develop an understanding of how NPC coating density and thickness impact Li electrodeposition. We find that NPC density and thickness guide Li morphological evolution differently and dictate whether Li deposits at the NPC-Cu or NPC-electrolyte interface. NPC coatings generally lower overpotential for Li electrodeposition, though thicker NPC coatings limit kinetics when cycling at a high rate. Lower-density NPC enables the highest Coulombic efficiency (CE) during calendar aging tests, and higher-density NPC enables the highest CE during cycling tests.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-12-27
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010010
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 11: Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy-Based
Characterization and Modeling of Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Frequency
Selection
Authors: Yuechan Xiao, Xinrong Huang, Jinhao Meng, Yipu Zhang, Vaclav Knap, Daniel-Ioan Stroe
First page: 11
Abstract: Lithium-ion batteries are commonly employed in electric vehicles due to their efficient energy storage and conversion capabilities. Nevertheless, to ensure reliable and cost-effective operation, their internal states must be continuously monitored. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is an effective tool for assessing the battery’s state. Different frequency ranges of EIS correspond to various electrochemical reaction processes. In this study, EIS measurements were conducted at seven temperatures, ranging from −20 °C to 10 °C, and across 21 states of charge (SOCs), spanning from 0% to 100%. A regression model was utilized to examine the unidirectional factorial characteristic impedance relative to temperature and SOC. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) table was created with temperature and SOC as independent variables and the impedance value as the dependent variable. These models accurately capture the behavior of lithium-ion batteries under different conditions. Based on this research, the battery electrochemical processes are better understood. This paper establishes a mathematical expression for a temperature–SOC-based impedance model at specific frequencies, i.e., 1 Hz, 20 Hz, and 3100 Hz. When comparing the models at these three frequencies, it was found that the model fitting accuracy is highest at 20 Hz, making it applicable across a wide range of temperatures and SOCs. Consequently, the accuracy of the impedance model can be enhanced at a specific frequency, simplifying the impedance model and facilitating the development of advanced battery state estimation methods.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-12-29
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010011
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 12: Safety and Reliability Analysis of
Reconfigurable Battery Energy Storage System
Authors: Helin Xu, Lin Cheng, Daniyaer Paizulamu, Haoyu Zheng
First page: 12
Abstract: Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used in electric vehicles (EVs) and energy storage systems (ESSs) because of their high energy density, low self-discharge rate, good cycling performance, and environmental friendliness. Nevertheless, with the extensive utilization of LIBs, incidents of fires and explosions resulting from thermal runaway (TR) have become increasingly prevalent. The resolution of safety concerns associated with LIBs and the reduction in operational risks have become pivotal to the operation and control of ESSs. This paper proposes a model for the TR process of LIBs. By simplifying the modeling of TR reactions, it is possible to calculate the starting temperature of the battery self-heating reaction. Subsequently, this paper puts forth an operational reliability evaluation algorithm for a reconfigurable battery energy storage system (BESS). Finally, this paper develops a control algorithm for reliability improvement, with the objective of ensuring safe and stable control of the ESS.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-12-30
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010012
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 11, Pages 13: Classification of the Crystal Structures of
Orthosilicate Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries by Artificial Neural
Networks
Authors: Mookala Premasudha, Bhumi Reddy Srinivasulu Reddy, Kwon-Koo Cho, Ahn Hyo-Jun, Jae-Kyung Sung, Nagireddy Gari Subba Reddy
First page: 13
Abstract: The crystal structures of orthosilicate cathode materials play a critical role in determining the physical and chemical properties of Li-ion batteries. Accurate predictions of these crystal structures are essential for estimating key properties of cathode materials in battery applications. In this study, we utilized crystal structure data from density functional theory (DFT) calculations, sourced from the Materials Project, to predict monoclinic and orthorhombic crystal systems in orthosilicate-based cathode-based materials with Li–Si–(Fe, Mn, Co)–O compositions. An artificial neural network (ANN) model with a 6-22-22-22-1 architecture was trained on 85% of the data and tested on the remaining 15%, achieving an impressive accuracy of 97.3%. The model demonstrated strong predictive capability, with only seven misclassifications from 267 datasets, highlighting its robustness and reliability in predicting the crystal structure of orthosilicate cathodes. To enhance interpretability and model reliability, we employed the Index of Relative Importance (IRI) to identify critical features influencing predictions. Additionally, a user-friendly graphical user interface was also developed to facilitate rapid predictions, enabling researchers to explore structural configurations efficiently and accelerating advancements in battery materials research.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-12-31
DOI: 10.3390/batteries11010013
Issue No: Vol. 11, No. 1 (2024)
|
Open Access journal
