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RILEM Technical Letters
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This is an Open Access Journal

Open Access journal
ISSN (Online) 2518-0231
Published by RILEM Publishing [1 journal]

An overview of the remaining challenges of the RILEM TC 274-TCE, testing
and characterisation of earth-based building materials and elements
- Authors: Antonin Fabbri, Jean Claude Morel, Jean-Emmanuel Aubert, Quoc-Bao Bui, Domenico Gallipoli, Anne Ventura, Venkatarama B. V. Reddy, Erwan Hamard, Antoine Pelé-Peltier, Holur Narayanaswamy Abhilash
  Pages: 150 - 157
  Abstract: Based on the RILEM Technical Committee 274-TCE work, this paper is a discussion of the remaining engineering challenges faced by earthen architecture. The assessment of earth material performances requires the development of appropriate procedures and standards. This is discussed in particular for the characterisation, hygrothermal behaviour, mechanical behaviour, and durability of earth materials. One other important challenge, since one of the main advantages classically put forward, is its ecological performance, is a proper assessment of life cycle assessment of earth materials, elements and buildings. Moreover, the paper develops why the approach to earthen construction must be different compared to the dominant construction materials, to preserve its ability to contribute to the ecological transition in the construction sector. In particular, the needs of using local soils, with an architectural approach coping with the limits of the materials, and developing an architectural optimisation to preserve the earthen materials multifunctionality rather than selecting a sole property to be maximised. Lastly, the findings of the paper can be used to develop a holistic approach to earthen construction to foster the development of new earthen architecture projects.
  PubDate: 2022-01-06
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.149
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2022)
A discussion on the order of magnitude of corrosion current density in
reinforcements of concrete structures and its link with cross-section loss
of reinforcement
- Authors: Raoul Francois
  Pages: 158 - 168
  Abstract: This paper deals with the determination of the corrosion current density in chloride-induced corrosion in reinforced concrete structures. Because the corrosion of steel bars is generally localized, calculations of the densities of corrosion current need to take the real surface areas of anodic zones into account. Nowadays, in the lab or on site, the calculation of densities of corrosion are based on arbitrary steel surface areas, which merge anodic and cathodic zones. As a result, the order of magnitude of corrosion current density is not correct; it is underestimated. A second aspect of the paper is the relationship between corrosion current density and the prediction of service life in RC structure when including a part of the propagation phase. The consequences of the corrosion current density on mechanical properties such as corrosion-induced cracking or load-bearing capacity must consider that anodic areas grow both laterally and in-depth.
  PubDate: 2022-02-28
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.116
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2022)
Alkali-silica reaction – a multidisciplinary approach
- Authors: Andreas Leemann, Mahsa Bagheri, Barbara Lothenbach, Karen Scrivener, Solène Barbotin, Emmanuelle Boehm-Courjault, Guoqing Geng, Rainer Dähn, Zhenguo Shi, Mahdieh Shakoorioskooie, Michele Griffa, Robert Zboray, Pietro Lura, Emil Gallyamov, Roozbeh Rezakhani, Jean-Francois Molinari
  Pages: 169 - 187
  Abstract: In the last four years, a multidisciplinary study involving several research groups in Switzerland tackled a number of unsolved, fundamental issues about the alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in concrete. The covered topics include SiO2 dissolution, the characterization of various ASR products formed at different stages of the reaction in both concrete and synthesis, crack formation and propagation. The encompassed scale ranges from nanometers to meters. Apart from conventional techniques, novel methods for the field of ASR have been used, e.g. combination of scanning electron microscopy with dissolution experiments, combination of focused ion beam with transmission electron microscopy, several synchrotron-based methods, synthesis of ASR products for in-depth characterization, time-lapse X-ray micro-tomography combined with contrast-enhancing measures and numerical models of ASR damage based on realistic crack patterns. Key achievements and findings are the quantification of the effect of aluminum on dissolution of different silicates, the variance in morphology and composition of initial ASR products, the differences and similarities between amorphous ASR products and calcium-silicate-hydrate, the link between temperature and the structure of the crystalline ASR products, the behavior of the crystalline ASR products at varying relative humidity, ASR propagation in 4D and numerical modelling based on realistic crack patterns.
  PubDate: 2022-03-28
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.151
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2022)
Biocapsules containing low-cost rejuvenators for asphalt self-healing
- Authors: Jose L. Concha, Luis Arteaga-Pérez, Irene Gonzalez-Torre, Jose Norambuena-Contreras
  Pages: 1 - 7
  Abstract: This study aimed to characterise polynuclear biocapsules containing low-cost rejuvenating agents for asphalt self-healing. Capsules consisted of a biopolymeric matrix of calcium alginate containing cooking oil and mineral oil as rejuvenating agents, being synthesised using ionic gelation through the pumping dripping technique. The physical-chemical properties of the oil-in-biopolymer emulsions and their stability over time were studied. The morphological and thermophysical properties of the biocapsules, as well as the encapsulation efficiency of the rejuvenating agents, were quantified and characterised by microscopic techniques and laboratory tests. Main results showed that emulsions should be used for encapsulation purposes within a period no longer than 3h, reducing the effect of instability phenomena. Besides, the biopolymer-based polynuclear capsules presented uniform size, internal multicavity microstructure resulting in high encapsulation efficiencies and thermal stability at high temperatures, proving that cooking oil and mineral oil can be potentially used as low-cost rejuvenating agents and thermally stable additives for asphalt self-healing purposes.
  PubDate: 2021-03-15
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.129
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
Rehydration of katoite as a layered double hydroxide: an in situ study
- Authors: Antonia Alana Lima Pacheco, Thiago Ricardo Santos Nobre, Marcel Hark Maciel, Celso Valentim Santilli, Antonio Carlos Vieira Coelho, Sérgio Cirelli Angulo
  Pages: 8 - 16
  Abstract: Calcium aluminate layered double hydroxides (Ca-Al LDHs) constitute a considerable part of cementitious waste fines. Although cementitious waste fines have proven to be recyclable by thermal treatment at moderate temperatures (400–700 °C), understanding how each phase rehydrates and contributes to the binding properties of rehydrated cementitious materials is still necessary. In this study, the de(re)hydration of katoite is investigated through in situ techniques, and its applicability as an alternative cement or supplementary cementitious material (SCM) is discussed. The research employed X-ray diffraction, isothermal calorimetry, in situ wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS), and rotational/oscillatory rheometry. Katoite synthesized by a mechanochemical process was dehydrated at 400 °C, producing mainly mayenite. During rehydration, calorimetry presents high heat production in the first minutes. WAXS shows prompt recovery of katoite and increasing formation of monocarboaluminate (Ca-Al LDH) after 30 s of rehydration. The findings confirm the direct association between rapid heat release and phase reformation. Rehydrated pastes present a high yield stress and an increasing storage modulus, indicating rapid binding properties. The consolidation is also correlated with cumulative heat and monocarboaluminate formation. The results indicate the potential of calcined katoite for use as rapid set alternative cement or SCM.
  PubDate: 2021-03-16
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.130
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
Hydration behaviour of limestone-calcined clay and limestone-slag blends
in ternary cement
- Authors: Anuj Parashar, Shashank Bishnoi
  Pages: 17 - 24
  Abstract: The effect of kaolinitic calcined clay and slag on the hydration of limestone-containing ternary blended cements was investigated. The effect of alumina from different sources of SCMs was considered to activate the formation of carboaluminates. Ternary blends with 50% ordinary portland cement clinker, 45% blends of limestone calcined clay (LC2) in 1:2 blend and slag limestone blend (SLS) in 2:1 mix proportion with 5% of gypsum were studied. The hydration behaviour was analysed based on cement mortar compressive strength, heat of hydration using an isothermal calorimeter and bound water measured using thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA). In addition, the degree of hydration of clinker phases and the composition of calcium - alumino - silicate - hydrate (C-A-S-H) gels forming in two different systems were compared on 90 days hydrated samples analysed using X-Ray diffractometry (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy - energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) respectively. The results show a rapid early strength development in limestone calcined clay cement blend (LC3) but a lower clinker hydration in comparison with slag limestone cement blend (SLSC) at later ages. In both the cement blends the formation of hemicarboaluminate (Hc) and monocarboaluminate (Mc) was confirmed at 90 days, but the conversion of Hc to Mc was higher in SLSC. Results further confirmed a lower degree of hydration and higher alumina incorporation in the C-A-S-H gel in the LC3 comparison to SLSC. The presence of calcium hydroxide was also confirmed in the SLSC blend due to the hydraulic nature of slag that supported the later age conversion of Hc to Mc as not seen in LC3.
  PubDate: 2021-03-19
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.134
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
Present status and issues of control technology for cracking of mass
concrete in Japan
- Authors: Toshiaki Mizobuchi, Shingo Asamoto
  Pages: 25 - 35
  Abstract: This paper presents the current state of the control technology for cracks caused by heat generation due to the hydration of cement during construction in Japan. For the prediction analysis for thermal cracking of mass concrete, this paper presents the CP method that was developed for the first time in the world, the thermal cracking probability, the simple evaluation method that can predict and estimate the thermal cracking without performing complicated analysis and the evaluation method for expansive materials using the mechanical energy conservation hypothesis. In addition, issues are introduced for the next revision of the guidelines.
  PubDate: 2021-05-03
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.137
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
CemGEMS – an easy-to-use web application for thermodynamic modelling
of cementitious materials
- Authors: Dmitrii A. Kulik, Frank Winnefeld, Anton Kulik, George Dan Miron, Barbara Lothenbach
  Pages: 36 - 52
  Abstract: Thermodynamic equilibrium calculations for cementitious materials enable predictions of stable phases and solution composition. In the last two decades, thermodynamic modelling has been increasingly used to understand the impact of factors such as cement composition, hydration, leaching, or temperature on the phases and properties of a hydrated cementitious system. General thermodynamic modelling codes such as GEM-Selektor have versatile but complex user interfaces requiring a considerable learning and training time. Hence there is a need for a dedicated tool, easy to learn and to use, with little to no maintenance efforts. CemGEMS (https://cemgems.app) is a free-to-use web app developed to meet this need, i.e. to assist cement chemists, students and industrial engineers in easily performing and visualizing thermodynamic simulations of hydration of cementitious materials at temperatures 0-99 °C and pressures 1-100 bar. At the server side, CemGEMS runs the GEMS code (https://gems.web.psi.ch) using the PSI/Nagra and Cemdata18 chemical thermodynamic data-bases (https://www.empa.ch/cemdata). The present paper summarizes the concepts of CemGEMS and its template data, highlights unique features of value for cement chemists that are not available in other tools, presents several calculated examples related to hydration and durability of cementitious materials, and compares the results with thermodynamic modelling using the desktop GEM-Selektor code.
  PubDate: 2021-06-08
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.140
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
CO2 mineralization of demolished concrete wastes into a supplementary
cementitious material – a new CCU approach for the cement industry
- Authors: Maciej Zajac, Jan Skocek, Jørgen Skibsted, Mohsen Ben Haha
  Pages: 53 - 60
  Abstract: This contribution discusses the carbon capture and utilization (CCU) approach based on CO2 mineralization of cement paste from recycled concrete as new approach to capture CO2 and significantly contribute to the reduction in CO2 emissions associated with cement production. The current literature suggests that all CO2 released from the decomposition of limestone during clinker production can be sequestered by carbonation of the end-of-life cement paste. This carbonation can be achieved in a few hours at ambient temperature and pressure and with a relatively low CO2 concentration (< 10 %) in the gas. The carbonation of cement paste produces calcite and an amorphous alumina-silica gel, the latter being a pozzolanic material that can be utilized as a supplementary cementitious material. The pozzolanic reaction of the alumina-silica gel is very rapid as a result of its high specific surface and amorphous structure. Thus, composite cements containing carbonated cement paste are characterized by a rapid strength gain. The successful implementation of this CCU approach relies also on improved concrete recycling techniques and methods currently under development to separate out the cement paste fines and such. Full concrete recycling will further improve the circular utilization of cement and concrete by using recycled aggregates instead of natural deposits of aggregates. Although the feasibility of the process has already been demonstrated at the industrial scale, there are still several open questions related to optimum carbonation conditions and the performance of carbonated material in novel composite cements.
  PubDate: 2021-07-15
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.141
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
Mechanically activated mine tailings for use as supplementary cementitious
materials
- Authors: Sivakumar Ramanathan, Priyadarshini Perumal, Mirja Illikainen, Prannoy Suraneni
  Pages: 61 - 69
  Abstract: Two mine tailings are evaluated for their potential as supplementary cementitious materials. The mine tailings were milled using two different methods – ball milling for 30 minutes and disc milling for durations ranging from 1 to 15 minutes. The modified R3 test was carried out on the mine tailings to quantify their reactivity. The reactivity of the disc milled tailings is greater than those of the ball milled tailings. Strong correlations are obtained between milling duration, median particle size, amorphous content, dissolved aluminum and silicon, and reactivity of the mine tailings. The milling energy results in an increase in the fineness and the amorphous content, which do not appreciably increase beyond a disc milling duration of 8 minutes. The reactivity increases significantly beyond a certain threshold fineness and amorphous content. Cementitious pastes were prepared at 30% supplementary cementitious materials replacement level at a water-to-cementitious materials ratio of 0.40. No negative effects of the mine tailings were observed at early ages in cement pastes based on isothermal calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis, demonstrating the potential for these materials to be used as supplementary cementitious materials.
  PubDate: 2021-07-16
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.143
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
Progress and opportunities in modelling environmentally assisted cracking
- Authors: Emilio Martínez-Pañeda
  Pages: 70 - 77
  Abstract: Environmentally assisted cracking phenomena are widespread across the transport, defence, energy and construction sectors. However, predicting environmentally assisted fractures is a highly cross-disciplinary endeavour that requires resolving the multiple material-environment interactions taking place. In this manuscript, an overview is given of recent breakthroughs in the modelling of environmentally assisted cracking. The focus is on the opportunities created by two recent developments: phase field and multi-physics modelling. The possibilities enabled by the confluence of phase field methods and electro-chemo-mechanics modelling are discussed in the context of three environmental assisted cracking phenomena of particular engineering interest: hydrogen embrittlement, localised corrosion and corrosion fatigue. Mechanical processes such as deformation and fracture can be coupled with chemical phenomena like local reactions, ionic transport and hydrogen uptake and diffusion. Moreover, these can be combined with the prediction of an evolving interface, such as a growing pit or a crack, as dictated by a phase field variable that evolves based on thermodynamics and local kinetics. Suitable for both microstructural and continuum length scales, this new generation of simulation-based, multi-physics phase field models can open new modelling horizons and enable Virtual Testing in harmful environments.
  PubDate: 2021-07-19
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.145
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
Sharp Front analysis of moisture buffering
- Authors: Christopher Hall, Gloria J. Lo, Andrea Hamilton
  Pages: 78 - 81
  Abstract: Moisture buffering describes the use of materials with high water-vapour sorption capacity to provide humidity control in interior spaces. Established models of the moisture dynamics of buffering are derived from conventional Fickian vapour-diffusion equations. We describe an alternative analysis using a Sharp-Front formulation. This yields a similar expression for the moisture effusivity, several consistent scalings and a new definition of the moisture penetration depth. Features of the model are compared with some published experimental data. A new sorption buffer index is a measurable experimental property that describes the water-vapour buffer strength of the material.
  PubDate: 2021-07-22
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.136
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
Concrete damage due to oxidation of pyrrhotite-bearing aggregate: a review
- Authors: Josée Duchesne, Andrea Rodrigues, Benoit Fournier
  Pages: 82 - 92
  Abstract: Oxidation of pyrrhotite-bearing aggregates is one of the major causes of concrete damage in numerous buildings in Trois-Rivières in Canada and Connecticut in the USA. In the presence of moisture and oxygen, pyrrhotite oxidizes to generate iron-and sulfate-rich secondary minerals that cause internal sulfate attack. Iron sulfides are accessory minerals of different rock types. The distribution of sulfides is often very heterogeneous in terms of aggregate particles, even at the level of the quarries in which some areas may contain copious amounts than others, which complicates the sampling method. Pyrrhotite is a complex mineral with varying chemical composition, crystallographic structure, and specific surface area. These factors influence the reactivity of pyrrhotite. Therefore, it is challenging to control the quality of the aggregate sources. In this study, recent advances in the identification and quantification of pyrrhotite to diagnose complicated cases are presented, and a performance-based approach for the quality control of new sources of aggregates is introduced. The performance-based approach is preferred because it eliminates the influence of the oxidation of pyrrhotite.
  PubDate: 2021-07-26
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.138
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
Pavement energy harvesting technologies: a critical review
- Authors: Domenico Vizzari, Eric Gennesseaux, Stéphane Lavaud, Stéphane Bouron, Emmanuel Chailleux
  Pages: 93 - 104
  Abstract: The world energy consumption is constantly increasing and the research point towards novel energy harvesting technologies. In the field of pavement engineering, the exploitable sources are the solar radiation and the vehicle load. At present, these systems are able to convert the sunlight into electricity thanks to some solar cells placed under a semi-transparent layer (photovoltaic roads), or they can harvest thermal heat by means of solar thermal systems. The thermal gradient of the pavement can be exploited by thermoelectric generators, by heat pipes or by heat-transfer fluids (i.e. water) pumped into a medium (asphalt solar collectors, porous layer or air conduits). The traffic load can be exploited by piezoelectric materials, able to convert the vehicle load into an electrical charge. The aim of this paper is to describe the main pavement energy harvesting technologies, pointing out positives and negatives and providing indications for further optimizations. Finally, the systems are compared in terms of initial cost, electrical output, efficiency and technology readiness level.
  PubDate: 2021-08-20
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.131
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
Opportunities and challenges for engineering construction materials as
carbon sinks
- Authors: Sabbie A. Miller, Elisabeth Van Roijen, Patrick Cunningham, Alyson Kim
  Pages: 105 - 118
  Abstract: Population growth and urbanization over the coming decades are anticipated to drive unprecedented demand for infrastructure materials and energy resources. Unfortunately, factors such as the degree of resource consumption, the energy-intensive nature of production, and the chemical-reaction driven emissions make infrastructure materials production industries among the greatest contributors to anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Yet there is an often-overlooked potential environmental benefit to infrastructure materials: most remain in use for decades and their long service lives can facilitate extended storage of carbon. In this perspective, we present an overview of recent technological advancements that can support infrastructure materials acting as a global, distributed carbon sink and discuss areas for further research and development. We present mechanisms to quantify the extent to which the embodied carbon will be removed from the carbon cycle for a long enough period of time to provide carbon sequestration and climate benefit. We conclude that it is possible to unlock the vast potential to engineer a carbon sequestration system that simultaneously meets societal need for expanding infrastructure systems; however, complexities in how these systems are engineered must be systematically and quantitatively incorporated into materials design.
  PubDate: 2021-10-08
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.146
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
Numerical simulation of multi-layer 3D concrete printing
- Authors: Jon Spangenberg, Wilson Ricardo Leal da Silva , Raphaël Comminal, Md. Tusher Mollah, Thomas Juul Andersen, Henrik Stang
  Pages: 119 - 123
  Abstract: This paper presents a computational fluid dynamics model fit for multi-layer 3D Concrete Printing. The numerical model utilizes an elasto-visco-plastic constitutive model to mimic the flow behaviour of the cementitious material. To validate the model, simulation data is compared to experimental data from 3D printed walls. The obtained results show that the numerical model can reproduce the experimental results with high accuracy and quantify the extrusion load imposed upon the layers. Such load is found to exceed the material’s yields stress in certain regions of previously printed layers, leading to layer deformation/flow. The developed and validated numerical model can assist in identifying optimal printing strategies, reducing the number of costly experimental print failures and human-process interaction. By doing so, the findings of this paper helps 3D Concrete Printing move a step closer to a truly digital fabrication process.
  PubDate: 2021-10-08
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.142
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
Life Cycle Assessment of alkali activated materials: preliminary
investigation for pavement applications
- Authors: Francesca Lolli, Kimberly E. Kurtis
  Pages: 124 - 130
  Abstract: The capital investment in the US for construction and maintenance of the infrastructure road network is $150 billion/year. Investments in OECD countries will likely stabilize, while other countries will face an exponential growth of investments for infrastructures driven by the development of metropolitan cities. Continued “business-as-usual” practice for portland and asphalt cement concrete pavement construction ignores the increasing warning calls for the identification of more sustainable and less energy intensive paving materials. Alkali activated materials concrete (AAM) have been studied with growing interest during the last three decades. AAM show promising results in terms of mechanical performance, while also having a global warming potential impact 30-80% less than that of portland cement concrete. The global warming potential of AAM is closely dependent on the: 1) activating solution used to activate the raw material and 2) origin of the raw material. Specifically, the impact of the transport for both of these components is ~ 10% of its global warming potential. Hence, to increase the adoption of AAM for pavements, it is fundamental to analyze the existing literature to clarify the link between environmental impact and mechanical performance, identifying opportunities for applications that are tailored to the local availability of raw material.
  PubDate: 2021-12-07
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.120
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
Recent developments in reactivity testing of supplementary cementitious
materials
- Authors: Prannoy Suraneni
  Pages: 131 - 139
  Abstract: Identification and rapid characterization of novel supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) is a critical need, driven by shortfalls in conventional SCMs. In this study, we present a discussion of recently developed reactivity tests – the R3 test, the modified R3 test, the lime strength test, and the bulk resistivity index test. These tests measure reactivity parameters such as heat release, bound water, calcium hydroxide consumption, strength, and bulk resistivity. All tests can screen inert from reactive materials. To additionally differentiate pozzolanic and latent hydraulic materials, two parameters, for example, calcium hydroxide consumption and heat release, are needed. The influences of SCM bulk chemistry, amorphous content, and fineness on measured reactivity are outlined. Reactivity test outputs can predict strength and durability of cement paste/mortar/concrete; however, caution must be exercised as these properties are influenced by a variety of other factors independent of reactivity. Thoughts are provided on using reactivity tests to screen materials for concrete durability.
  PubDate: 2021-12-29
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.150
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)
Advancing cement-based materials design through data science approaches
- Authors: Renee Rios, Chris Childs, Scott Smith, Newell Washburn, Kimberly Kurtis
  Pages: 140 - 149
  Abstract: The massive scale of concrete construction constrains the raw materials’ feedstocks that can be considered – requiring both universal abundance but also economical and energy-efficient processing. While significant improvements– from more efficient cement and concrete production to increased service life – have been realized over the past decades through traditional research paradigms, non-incremental innovations are necessary now to meet increasingly urgent needs, at a time when innovations in materials create even greater complexity. Data science is revolutionizing the rate of discovery and accelerating the rate of innovation for material systems. This review addresses machine learning and other data analytical techniques which utilize various forms of variable representation for cementitious systems. These techniques include those guided by physicochemical and cheminformatics approaches to chemical admixture design, use of materials informatics to develop process-structure-property linkages for quantifying increased service life, and change-point detection for assessing pozzolanicity in candidate supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). These latent variables, coupled with approaches to dimensionality reduction driven both algorithmically as well as through domain knowledge, provide robust feature representation for cement-based materials and allow for more accurate models and greater generalization capability, resulting in a powerful design tool for infrastructure materials.
  PubDate: 2021-12-30
  DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.147
  Issue No: Vol. 6 (2021)