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- Design and Assessment of Fighter Pilot Assistance Systems for Air-to-Air
Refuelling with Probe-and-Drogue-Equipment-
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Abstract: Abstract Air-to-air refuelling (AAR) with a probe-and-drogue system is a highly demanding process for fighter pilots. In the frame of the project “Future Air-to-Air Refuelling” (F(AI)2R) the German Aerospace Center (DLR) is designing concepts for assistance systems to support fighter pilots during this manoeuvre. The AAR process was examined using a hierarchical task analysis (HTA) based on a literature review and semi-structured interviews with Eurofighter-, Tornado- and test pilots. “Situation Awareness Requirements” (SAR), which represent relevant parameters for the situation awareness of the fighter pilot were derived from the HTA and rated by pilots according to their relevance. The collected data was then used to design different concepts of pilot assistance systems using a morphological box and a decision matrix. The concepts were visualised as storyboards, assessed by test pilots of the “Wehrtechnische Dienststelle 61” (WTD 61) and optimized based on their feedback. In this paper, the used methodology as well as the results of the HTA and SAR analysis are presented. Besides that, storyboards for pilot assistance systems displaying the overtake speed “German Patent No. 10.2022.110.505” and the “Contact Assistance, Status and Warning System” (CASWS) “German Patent No. 10.2022.123.653” are described. Additionally, the planned implementation using a HoloLens 2 is explained and the strategy for the subsequent simulator study on the DLR fighter aircraft simulator “Military AiR vehicle Simulator – Fast Integration Testbed” (MARS-FIT) is described. PubDate: 2024-08-22
- Special issue on advances in rotorcraft research and technology
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PubDate: 2024-08-08
- Unsteady nonlinear lifting line model for active gust load alleviation of
airplanes-
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Abstract: Abstract Active gust load alleviation is an important technology for designing future passenger airplanes to be lighter and thus more environmentally friendly. Unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (URANS) simulations are typically used to accurately calculate gust loads, but because of their high computational cost, they can only be performed at a few selected operating points. In simpler potential theory models, stall is neglected, resulting in loss of accuracy. In this paper, a low-order unsteady aerodynamics wing model is presented, which is able to represent well compressible flow with stall. Furthermore, the model offers the possibility to modularly incorporate actuators, which allows the design and evaluation of active load alleviation systems. The model is based on a conventional unsteady 2D airfoil model including a dynamic stall model. The dynamic stall model requires viscous steady coefficients, e.g. from 2D steady RANS computations. This 2D airfoil model is coupled with a 3D steady-state lifting line model. The model is applied to the LEISA research airplane and extensively validated with URANS results. It performs well in calculating gust loads with and without simultaneous flap deflections, and provides significantly more accurate results in the case of stall than when stall is neglected. PubDate: 2024-08-05
- Holographic visual cues for mission task elements
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Abstract: Abstract Mission task elements (MTEs) are commonly used to evaluate the handling qualities (HQs) of rotorcraft. However, the traditional approach of physical ground courses faces challenges due to evolving rotorcraft designs and flight profiles. Infrastructure limitations and lack of flexibility for research pose significant obstacles, particularly for high-speed tasks. The emergence of new air vehicles, such as eVTOLs in the civil sector and future vertical lift configurations in the military domain, requires an adapted visual cueing process for previously unaddressed mission profiles. This paper proposes an innovative solution: an augmented reality (AR) system utilizing a head-mounted display to create virtual MTE courses called holographic visual cues (HVCs). A piloted simulation campaign performed at DLR’s AVES simulator compares the effectiveness of HVCs with dome projection-based visual cues, evaluating the performance of the AR system. The study investigated the impact of holographic visual cues on pilot handling qualities, workload ratings, and task performance, finding that although these cues typically do not significantly alter pilot ratings, individual responses varied, highlighting both the technology’s potential and the need for further refinement. PubDate: 2024-08-03
- Battery-electric powertrain system design for the HorizonUAM multirotor
air taxi concept-
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Abstract: Abstract The work presented herein has been conducted within the DLR internal research project HorizonUAM, which encompasses research within numerous areas related to urban air mobility. One of the project goals was to develop a safe and certifiable onboard system concept. This paper aims to present the conceptual propulsion system architecture design for an all-electric battery-powered multirotor electric Vertical Takeoff and Landing (eVTOL) vehicle. Therefore, a conceptual design method was developed that provides a structured approach for designing the safe multirotor propulsion architecture. Based on the concept of operation the powertrain system was initially predefined, iteratively refined based on the safety assessment and validated through component sizing and simulations. The analysis was conducted within three system groups that were developed in parallel: the drivetrain, the energy supply and the thermal management system. The design process indicated that a pure quadcopter propulsion system can merely be designed reasonably for meeting the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) reliability specifications. By adding two push propellers and implementing numerous safety as well as passivation measures the reliability specifications defined by EASA could finally be fulfilled. The subsequent system simulations also verified that the system architecture is capable of meeting the requirements of the vehicle concept of operations. However, further work is required to extend the safety analysis to additional system components as the thermal management system or the battery management system and to reduce propulsion system weight. PubDate: 2024-07-31
- Horizonuam: operational challenges and necessary frameworks to ensure safe
and efficient vertidrome operations-
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Abstract: Abstract Urban Air Mobility (UAM) has emerged as a potential game changer for urban transportation, promising faster, more efficient and affordable services. However, beyond the visionary concepts, it is crucial to explore and discuss the opportunities and challenges of UAM and vertidrome operations also from a research perspective. The DLR research project HorizonUAM aimed at a holistic research approach in which vertidromes and vertidrome networks play a significant role. This vertidrome centered project report covers various aspects and methodological approaches addressing design and operation, UAM airspace management, network optimization and the integration of air taxi operations into airport environment. Moreover, the conceptual and temporary development of a modular 1:4 scale model city lays the foundation for future UAM flight trials. Based on three years of dedicated research within HorizonUAM, we focus here on operational challenges, proposed solutions and required frameworks to ensure safe and efficient vertidrome operations PubDate: 2024-07-27
- Development of an acoustic fault diagnosis system for UAV propeller blades
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Abstract: Abstract With the rapid growth in demand for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), novel maintenance technologies are essential for ensuring automatic, safe, and reliable operations. This study compares two fault detection systems that utilize the acoustic signature of UAV propeller blades for classifying their health state. By employing an acoustic camera with 112 microphones for spatial resolution of sound sources, datasets of acoustic images are generated in three differently reverberating environments for the third octave frequency bands of 6300 Hz, 8000 Hz, 10,000 Hz and 12,500 Hz. A convolutional neural network (CNN) is trained and evaluated with maximum F1-scores of 0.9962 and 0.9745 for two and three propeller health classes, respectively. Furthermore, we propose a second approach based on a linear classification (LC), which utilizes a rotating beamformer for comparison. This approach uses only two sound sources that are identified after the acoustic beamforming of a two-bladed propeller. In comparison, this algorithm detects propeller tip damages without applying a machine learning algorithm and reaches a slightly lower F1-score of 0.9441. PubDate: 2024-07-12
- Implementation of a toolbox for the generation of flight profiles for use
in simulator studies-
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Abstract: Abstract Motion sickness is a phenomenon which can produce various symptoms in affected individuals. During development of new aircraft types and cabin layouts, it is important to consider this phenomenon early on, to reduce resulting effects. For research on this topic, German Aerospace Center uses the simulator environment Air Vehicle Simulator together with the Advanced Future Cabin. The Air Vehicle Simulator is a full flight simulator with an interchangeable cockpit module. One of those modules is the Advanced Future Cabin, a realistic replica of an aircraft cabin. Good standardization of the test conditions is required to ensure objectivity and reliability of motion sickness studies in this simulator environment. A specialized software infrastructure is used to replay pre-recorded flight profiles, which are then reproduced by the simulator’s motion, visual and audio systems. Using this replay approach, complete flight profiles can be reproduced very well. However, when parts of the flight profile need exact reproduction within a flight profile or across multiple flight profiles, the approach to record pilot-in-the-loop simulation sessions becomes problematic, as flying the exact same twice is almost impossible. As an improved approach, a toolbox has been implemented, which automates the generation of flight profiles, enabling easier and more precise research on motion sickness in the simulator. The toolbox replaces the pilot-in-the-loop simulation with an automated control of the underlying aircraft simulation model. This leads to greatly improved accuracy of inputs to the simulation model and thus very good reproducibility even of flight profile segments. In this manuscript, details of the toolbox implementation and its validation are discussed. PubDate: 2024-07-10
- A discussion on benchmarking unconventional configurations with
conventional aircraft: the box-wing study case-
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Abstract: Abstract This article is intended to introduce an alternative approach to comparative analyses between innovative aeronautical technologies and established state-of-the-art references. Commonly, the tendency is to use a ‘like-for-like’ comparative approach with respect to current technologies -defined as reference benchmarks- that is, to evaluate the possible incremental improvements that can be achieved by introducing a specific technological innovation. However, when innovations that potentially introduce step improvements or new functions compared to the state of the art are evaluated, typically referred to as ‘breakthrough’, this approach may not be the most formally sound one, and it may introduce bias and misjudgements. In the field of aircraft design, using the same top-level requirements and figures of merit as those used for conventional aircraft to initialise and steer the design of unconventional configurations, could undermine the exploitation of their operating and functional potential. The soundness of the comparative approach is of paramount importance, especially in the very early stages of the development of disruptive technologies and unconventional aircraft configurations. In this paper, with the supporting example of the application of the box-wing configuration to medium-range transport aircraft, a general discussion is offered on the necessity of leaving aside the ‘like-for-like’ benchmark approach when investigating the potential of disruptive aircraft innovations. This argumentation does not only refer to the case study proposed as an example, but is generally extendable to aeronautical innovations that may introduce operating and functional novelties compared to current technologies. PubDate: 2024-07-06
- Vertiport navigation requirements and multisensor architecture
considerations for urban air mobility-
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Abstract: Abstract Communication, Navigation and Surveillance (CNS) technologies are key enablers for future safe operation of drones in urban environments. However, the design of navigation technologies for these new applications is more challenging compared to e.g., civil aviation. On the one hand, the use cases and operations in urban environments are expected to have stringent requirements in terms of accuracy, integrity, continuity and availability. On the other hand, airborne sensors may not be based on high-quality equipment as in civil aviation and solutions need to rely on tighter multisensor solutions, whose safety is difficult to assess. In this work, we first provide some initial navigation requirements related to precision approach operations based on recently proposed vertiport designs. Then, we provide an overview of a possible multisensor navigation architecture solution able to support these types of operations and we comment on the challenges of each of the subsystems. Finally, initial proof of concept for some navigation sensor subsystems is presented based on flight trials performed during the German Aerospace Center (DLR) project HorizonUAM. PubDate: 2024-07-05
- Constrained path planning for manned–unmanned rotorcraft teaming in
emergency medical service missions-
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Abstract: Abstract This paper investigates the path-planning problem applied to an innovative Unmanned Air Vehicle teaming with a helicopter to increase safety during Helicopter Emergency Medical Services operations. The unmanned vehicle, a drone that optionally can be launched from the helicopter, has the mission to explore the area of operation to determine the meteorological and environmental conditions and to detect physical obstacles. It is initially found that the combination of probabilistically optimal Rapidly-exploring Random Tree (RRT \(^{*}\) ) as the global planner and of Bidirectional Rapidly-exploring Random Tree (BiRRT) as the local planner provides a nearly optimal global path and a rapid replanning in case new obstacles are detected. Adopting a Savitzky–Golay filter in an optional post-processing phase enables trajectory smoothing, thus improving its practicability. The feasibility of the identified trajectory for a rigid-body helicopter model is assessed by computing a first estimate of attitude, forces, control inputs, and rotor power from the trajectory points and curvature. This assessment shows that the RRT \(^{*}\) used as a local planner provides replanned trajectories more feasible than BiRRT with comparable computational times. PubDate: 2024-07-02
- Scalable guidance and control laws for model-scale analysis of autonomous
ship landing systems-
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Abstract: Abstract Due to the potential to expand flight envelopes and increase flight safety for sea-based rotorcraft, there has been a drive to produce reliable autonomous ship landing systems. These systems are complex and must be validated by extensive experimentation. Experimentation at full-scale is often impractical, however, as it relies on the availability of a full-scale ship and aircraft, is expensive, and is subject to outdoor weather conditions. Experimentation at model scale, on the other hand, offers a controllable test bed that can be used to isolate the effects of individual parameter variations. With appropriate dynamic scaling considered during experiment design, the benefits of model-scale testing can be leveraged to gain insight into the limitations and vulnerabilities of a complex landing algorithm. This paper presents easily scalable guidance and control laws that account for reduction in scale via Froude scaling, making for convenient use in model-scale experimentation. The control law utilizes the explicit model following architecture and is integrated with a quadratic programming-based trajectory planner, which incorporates deck motion predictions produced by autoregressive models. The landing algorithm is tested in scaled flight tests to a virtual ship deck, verifying its feasibility and demonstrating its use in model-scale experimentation. PubDate: 2024-07-01
- Rotorcraft stability analysis using Lyapunov characteristic exponents
estimated from multibody dynamics-
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Abstract: Abstract Stability analysis of complex, nonlinear dynamical systems is a challenge. The use of Lyapunov Characteristic Exponents through a Jacobian-less method is proposed as a means to identify the Maximum Lyapunov Characteristic Exponent, namely the fundamental stability indicator of a generic problem, solely from time series obtained through general-purpose multibody dynamics simulations of complex rotorcraft aeromechanics models. The method is first applied to a relatively simple scenario concerning the identification of ground resonance. Then, its application to more complex models is addressed by studying the aeroelastic stability and identifying the whirl flutter of the XV-15 tiltrotor using a comprehensive aeroelastic model. PubDate: 2024-07-01
- Conceptual design of a distributed electric anti-torque system for
enhanced helicopter safety and performance-
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Abstract: Abstract The flexibility offered by distributed electric propulsion (DEP) has triggered in the recent years a variety of new aircraft concepts, showing a way to improve the overall efficiency, capabilities and robustness of the future air vehicles. In comparison, the conventional helicopter tail rotor, with its vulnerable and complex installation, looks like an example of system application ready to take advantage of DEP, both in terms of redundancy and simplification of the flight control chain. This article discusses the conceptual design of a distributed electric anti-torque system, starting from a reference usage spectrum and a theoretical architecture example. The goal is to optimize the key electrical components for steady-state operations and to verify the dynamic behaviour in healthy and degraded conditions. In addition, the resources introduced with the tail rotor electrification are considered to improve the aircraft performance in hot and high conditions. Following an introduction to the safety requirements and the electrical technology state-of-the-art, all the main components are modelled and combined into a single dynamic network. Simulation results from different testing scenarios are then reviewed (in the mechanical, thermal and electrical domain) to show compliance with the minimum acceptance criteria. Finally, the article discusses the advantages and disadvantages of a distributed versus concentrated electrical solution. PubDate: 2024-07-01
- New smart twisting active rotor (STAR): pretest predictions
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Abstract: Abstract A Mach-scaled model rotor with an active twist capability is in preparation for a wind tunnel test in the large low-speed facility of the German-Dutch wind tunnel (DNW) with international participation by the German Aerospace Center (DLR), US Army Combat Capabilities Development Command (DEVCOM) Aviation & Missile Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, French Aerospace Lab (ONERA), Korea Aerospace Research Institute, Konkuk University, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Glasgow University, and DNW. To get the maximum benefit from the test and the most valuable data within the available test time, the tentative test matrix was covered by predictions of the partners, active twist benefits were evaluated, and support was provided to the test team to focus on the key operational conditions. PubDate: 2024-07-01
- Impact of differential torsional rotor cant on the flight characteristics
of a passenger-grade quadrotor-
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Abstract: Abstract At the Institute of Flight Systems at DLR, studies have been performed to understand the flight characteristics of novel eVTOL configurations. As part of these studies, previously conducted handling qualities assessments on a two-passenger generic quadrotor configuration had revealed major deficiencies about its yaw axis. Based on this result, the quadrotor model has been modified by differential torsional canting to improve its yaw characteristics. This paper analyzes the resulting impacts of such modification on the flight performance, dynamic stability and handling qualities. A piloted simulator test campaign was conducted to assess predicted and assigned handling qualities levels in compliance with the quantitative and qualitative performance standards of ADS-33E. The results show an improvement in midterm yaw response at the expense of increase in total required power. The pilot ratings and comments confirm the improvement on the yaw response upon the flown MTEs. PubDate: 2024-07-01
- Rotorcraft source noise characterization via acoustic snapshot array:
development and evaluation-
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Abstract: Abstract Historical development of acoustic hemispheres has required steady flight of a rotorcraft vehicle across a large linear array of microphones. The US Army, NASA, and Navy recently conducted a rotorcraft acoustics flight test in which multiple “snapshot” microphone arrays were used alongside a traditional linear microphone array. The snapshot arrays allow for a near instantaneous capture of rotorcraft acoustic emission directivities, without the need for steady flight. Development of the snapshot array is contained herein, and an evaluation of effectiveness of the array during adverse weather conditions. The snapshot arrays captured significant variation in acoustic emissions throughout a single run and between multiple runs of similar conditions. Hemispheres were created and modelled in land-use planning software and an investigation of A-weighted Sound Exposure Level (SEL [dBA]) was conducted. Sideline predictions of SEL compared well (within 0.1 dBA) between traditional and snapshot arrays, while centre line locations were less favourable with a difference of 1.6 dBA. A posteriori analysis was conducted and shown that a minimum of 51 microphones is likely necessary for snapshot arrays without requiring modification to land-use planning software. Future refinement is required, including development of a semi-empirical method to interpolate between measurement points, instead of the linear frequency weighting conventionally employed. PubDate: 2024-07-01
- Impact of airtaxi operations in the control zone on air traffic
controllers-
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Abstract: Abstract Urban air mobility is one approach to reduce congested road traffic and door-to-door travel times. Introducing these vehicles into the urban areas challenges air traffic control once the designated corridors interfere with the control zone of an airport. In this paper, it is evaluated how the performance of air traffic controllers is affected by airtaxi operations in the control zone given the example of Hamburg airport. Moreover, it is assessed whether an enhanced airside situation display showing routes and labels is able to counteract adverse impacts on workload and situation awareness. As a method, eight controllers participated in three simulation runs: first with conventional air traffic, second with additional airtaxis, and third with airtaxis, and the enhanced airside situation display. It revealed that workload increases by more than 40% without reaching overload states in the simulation. The enhanced airside situation display is able to reduce some, but not all adverse impacts. Based on the results, further ways to handle UAM vehicles in the control zone are suggested. PubDate: 2024-07-01
- Probabilistic and explainable tree-based models for rotational reactionary
flight delay prediction-
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Abstract: Abstract Flight delays are a well-known source of concern for the air traffic management. Numerous assessments of delay causes have revealed that reactionary delay contributes the most to the average delay per flight. The reactionary delay has several causes, including awaiting load and/or cabin crew from another flight, as well as the late arrival from the inbound flight operated by the same aircraft, also known as rotational reactionary delay. While the former is likely unpredictable without access to load and cabin crew schedule information, which airlines do not publish, rotational reactionary delay could be predicted to some extent using data available to airports and the Network Manager (In the context of this study, the term ‘Network Manager’ refers to a key entity within the air traffic management system. The Network Manager’s role varies across regions, but generally, it is responsible for coordinating and optimizing the use of airspace and airport resources to ensure efficient air traffic flow. This role is particularly crucial in Europe, where the Network Manager is tasked with managing a complex and highly interconnected airspace. Please note that the interpretation of ‘Network Manager’ may differ depending on the reader’s regional context). This paper proposes a tree-based model for predicting the rotational reactionary delay of individual flights that combines the most recent advances in natural gradient-boosting and feature attribution methods to provide predictions that are both probabilistic and explainable. The effectiveness of the model is demonstrated for two distinct yet related quantities: departure delay distribution (a probabilistic regression task) and likelihood of being punctual at departure (a binary classification task). In both cases, the model is trained and tested using two distinct datasets containing roughly the same information: operational data from the enhanced tactical flow management system, and the research and development data archive made available to the public by EUROCONTROL. Results show that the proposed model outperforms predictions based on standard statistical methods. Furthermore, findings evidence the importance of a precise problem statement when training machine learning models on uncertain flight data. PubDate: 2024-07-01
- Helicopter augmented control laws for ship deck landing: HACLAS ONERA/DLR
Joint Team-
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Abstract: Abstract Different types of control laws are implemented, tested and compared for maritime operations particularly ship deck landing maneuvers at the flight simulation facilities at both DLR (German Aerospace Center) and ONERA (The French Aerospace Lab). At DLR, “classical” cyclic and collective stick flight controls were used during the piloted simulator trials while active side-sticks were operated at ONERA. A joint maritime scenario for ship deck landing in the simulation environments of both institutes is presented. Test methodologies and assessment techniques to evaluate the ship deck landings are harmonized based on different criteria such as quantitative measures and handling qualities (HQ) ratings to analyze the developed control laws. Simulation results based on pilot studies for an EC135 in the DLR simulator and an EC225 at ONERA are presented. PubDate: 2024-06-25
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