Open Access journal ISSN (Print) 2254-7053 - ISSN (Online) 2254-7053 This journal is no longer being updated because: the publisher no longer provides RSS feeds
Authors:Manuel Probst Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of exaggerated hip rotation on anaerobic power during sprint cycling. Twenty-six subjects (15 males and 11 females, 21.8 + 2.0 years) performed a 30-sec Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) twice on non-consecutive days on a Monark 873E cycle ergometer using a cross-over, counter-balanced experimental design. Following a 2-min warm-up and a 10-second unloaded countdown, subjects pedaled as fast as possible at a set load. During one trial, subjects pedaled for 30 seconds using a standard cycling technique (ST). During a different trial, subjects pedaled using ST for the first 15 seconds and then switched to a rotation technique (RT) for the remaining 15 seconds. The two-way mixed ANOVA showed a statistically significant interaction (p < 0.05) between the intervention (RT and ST) and time for anaerobic power for the final 15 seconds. Paired t-test analysis showed a significantly lower (p < 0.05) fatigue index (-4.33 + 8.15) and mean anaerobic power (15.33 + 36.09) for RT during the final 10 seconds, but not during the final 15 seconds of the test. Paired t-test analysis also showed significantly higher anaerobic power for RT than ST at 23 sec (20.81 + 39.18), 24 sec (18.08 + 39.35), 25 sec (18.81 + 39.35), 26 sec (19.81 +43.67) and 30 sec (25.85 + 49.37). The data suggest that increased hip rotation can help sustain anaerobic power during sprint cycling for brief periods. Issue No:Vol. 12, No. 1
Authors:Reinout Van Schuylenbergh, Ruben Robberechts , Chiel Poffé Abstract: The cycling world hour record (WHR) is one of the most mythical and challenging cycling performances. Yet, due to limited physiological data on WHR attempts, the metabolic requirements of a successful WHR attempt are unclear. Therefore, this study used a validated mathematical model of muscle metabolism (INSCYD GmbH, version 2.0, Salenstein, Switzerland) to estimate the lactate dynamics and aerobic and anaerobic energy contribution during a successful WHR record attempt. The calculated maximal glycolytic rate (Vlamax) was 0.38 mmol·l-1·min-1. The lactate accumulation rate at the average WHR power amounted 0.06 mmol·l-1·min-1 resulting in a total blood lactate accumulation of 3.6 mmol·l-1 and an estimated blood lactate concentration (BLC) of 4.4-4.9 mmol·l-1 at the end of the WHR attempt. This BLC approximated the measured BLC after the WHR (5.2 mmol·l-1). The calculated energy contribution during the WHR amounted 8.2% from anaerobic energy metabolism and 91.8% from aerobic energy metabolism. This information is valuable for athletes and coaches to optimize training for a WHR attempt or other time-trial events. Future research should focus on the application of golden standard methodologies to quantify the metabolic profile of the WHR cyclist to further increase our understanding of the metabolic demands of this mythical cycling event. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Stuart Evans, Veronica Vleck Abstract: This case report describes the integrated rehabilitation and strength and conditioning approach that was adopted after the diagnosis of a fracture of the inferior pubic ramus, as well as a fracture to the lateral aspect of the superior pubic ramus, in a semi-professional triathlete and cyclist. The male athlete also incurred a minimal displacement of the medial acetabular, fracture of the superolateral acetabular and a fracture of the left sacral ala. Bleeding into both adductor muscles, and sacroiliac joint dysfunction were also diagnosed. The athlete suffered these injuries within a standard field-based training routine. No surgery was performed on the athlete. He was prescribed a progressive, yet structured, rehabilitation and strength and conditioning program by an allied health team. The program was adhered to by the athlete for four months. The strength and conditioning program included adaptations in the execution of most of the prescribed exercises. It required the athlete to initially perform the exercises twice weekly. At seven weeks post fracture, the athlete’s weight bearing capabilities were increased to partial weight bearing on the injured side. Over the following month a gradual increase in the athlete´s level of strength and conditioning, as he performed both upper and lower body isometric exercises, occurred. These exercises were subsequently followed up with various isotonic exercises. The athlete reported no pain when he returned to spin cycling. On clinical follow-up, three months post-accident, a healing fracture was confirmed via radiographs of the athlete´s pelvis. Bone healing was assumed, on review, when no evidence of a fracture gap was obtained. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Pedro Guilherme Volpato Rossi, Fabiana Andrade Machado, Elton Jhony de Almeida, Cecília Segabinazi Peserico Abstract: The aim of this study was to determine and correlate peak power output (PPO), critical power (CP), and lower limb muscle power in recreational endurance cyclists. Nineteen recreational endurance cyclists (31.4 ± 5.6 years) performed the following tests in the laboratory: incremental test to determine the PPO, 3-min all-out test to determine the CP, and vertical jump (VJ) tests to determine lower limb muscle power. The tests for PPO and CP determination were performed on a road bike and the VJ tests were performed on an electronic platform. During the cycle tests, heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were monitored. The values of PPO (4.2 ± 0.5 W·kg-1) and CP (3.8 ± 0.6 W·kg-1) found were similar to those of other studies that evaluated recreational level endurance cyclists; a significant and "very large" correlation was also observed between these two variables (r = 0.751). In contrast, no significant correlations were found between lower limb muscle power with PPO and CP. Therefore, PPO and CP were highly correlated however, these variables, obtained in the cycle tests were not associated with the lower limb muscle power determined in the VJ tests. Considering practical applications, PPO and CP represent different intensities and should be used for training prescription. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Richard Douglas Reitz Abstract: Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome is the most common lower extremity musculoskeletal complaint reported by cyclists. In spite of the prevalence of research, its pathogenesis and the pathophysiology responsible for this repetitive stress injury has yet to be identified. The most accepted and therefore researched theory involves patellar maltracking arising from the muscular imbalance of the vastus lateralis and vastus medialis. To date, research findings have been inconclusive and many times contradictory. Physical rehabilitation based on those findings has had mixed outcomes, both short and long term. There is a growing body of evidence linking patellofemoral pain syndrome to dysfunction of the hip musculature. This clinical commentary is to elucidate evidence correlating patellofemoral pain syndrome to the muscular dysfunction involving the femoral adductors and abductors, thereby directly influencing the alignment and kinematics of the femur. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Neil Heron, Benedict Leonard-Hawkhead , Davog McCaffrey Abstract: Bicycle Motocross (BMX) is a sport that has gained popularity since the 1960s. Sports-related concussions (SRCs) are ubiquitous within cycling, particularly in the discipline of BMX. The management of concussion in sport is an important issue, and many international sporting bodies have published guidelines. In this review, literature is searched systematically in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA): Extension for Scoping Reviews for sports-related concussion assessment in bicycle motocross. Only two items were included within the review and shows the distinct lack of discipline specific, SRC assessment guidance and recommends further research to help apply the Sport Concussion Assessment Tool version 6 to BMX. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Robyn Aitkenhead Abstract: Female physiology is unique and driven by fluctuations in sex hormones that regulate the menstrual cycle. These hormones present a myriad of mechanisms that may influence physiological systems, potentially implicating exercise performance. However, research exploring the MC in athletes is limited. This study investigated if different phases of the MC influenced training schedules, sleep quality, arousal and alertness in elite and well-trained female mountain bike, road and cyclocross athletes. Fifteen well-trained (n= 7) and elite (n= 8) cyclists (age: 29 ± 7yrs, height: 1.7 ± 0.1m, body mass: 61.9 ± 7.7kg) tracked their MC symptoms, basal body temperature, body mass, sleep, arousal and alertness measures daily for 3 months. The MC was split into two phases, follicular and luteal, and participants were provided ovulation kits to identify the phases. The most reported symptoms were fatigue, bloating, abdominal pain, and cramping. Athletes' BBT was significantly greater (p<0.05) in the LP compared to the FP (0.4 ºC, p=0.01, d=0.4). No significant differences (p>0.05) in body mass, sleep duration and quality, alertness and arousal were observed between well-trained and elite athletes. Further, no significant differences for any training variables, average or maximum heart rate, training load (bTRIMP), average or maximum speed and rate of perceived exertion were observed between status. The MC did not influence physiological responses and training variables in well-trained and elite mountain bike, road and cyclocross female athletes. Nevertheless, individual fluctuations were present, and it is recommended that athletes and should monitor their own MC to optimise training and ultimately performance. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Greg Lewandowski Abstract: Relationship Between Isometric Peak Force and Maximal Sprinting in Elite Track Cyclists Greg Lewandowski 1,2, Stephen McMullan 1,2 1Canadian Sport Institute Ontario, 2Cycling Canada Keywords: Isometric, Strength, Force, Torque, Power, Cycling, Sprint Introduction Isometric strength tests have been shown to provide valuable information on force-time characteristics in various sporting movements, including running, cycling and jumping (Kordi et al., 2017, 2020; Lum et al., 2020). There is a growing interest in monitoring off-bike isometric strength levels and examining their relationship with bike-specific metrics. In particular, it has been found that isometric strength measured on an adapted cycling ergometer is a predictor of maximal torque and peak power (Kordi et al., 2017, 2020). However, what is less known is the relationship between angle-specific isometric force-time characteristics measured using a strain gauge instrument fixed on a leg press and sprint cycling (6 sec maximal sprint) performance. The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between angle specific isometric strength and cycling specific metrics peak power and torque. We hypothesized that there would be a positive relationship with the ability to produce force in an isometric position and the ability to produce torque and power on a cycling ergometer. We propose that this setup would enable practitioners to track strength levels without requiring cycling-specific equipment and implement joint angle-specific isometric training in the weight room. Such information could help improve the effectiveness of strength training programs for cyclists. Participants Eleven elite (McKay et al. 2021) track cyclists (n=11; 3 females, 8 males), composed of six track sprint and five track endurance athletes (mean ± SD: age: 24.1 ± 3.5 yrs, body mass 82.3 ± 12.6 kg). Methodology The athletes completed two sessions: 1 sprint session on a SRM cycle ergometer and 1 isometric strength session. Both sessions were completed on the same day. Ergometer Sprint Testing Maximal sprint testing was conducted on an SRM cycle ergometer (Julich, Germany) equipped with a dynamically calibrated scientific version SRM power meter (Gardener et al., 2004). The warm-up preceding the maximal sprint test consisted of athletes performing 15 minutes of self-directed cycling, making sure athletes did one near maximal sprint within the warm-up. Immediately after the athletes performed their warm-up, athletes were instructed to complete two maximal 6-second sprints from a full stop position while seated on the SRM cycle ergometer. Each cyclist was fitted with equipment of similar geometry (e.g., seat height, seat setback, bar height, crank length) to their track bicycles used in training and racing. Data were recorded at 5 Hz, generating values representing one-revolution average (MacIntosh et al. 2004). The relationship between torque and cadence was established through a linear regression, as previously outlined (Gardner et al., 2007). Isometric Leg Press Set Up Isometric testing via a Mark-10 strain gauge attached to the leg press with a chain was performed 15 mins post sprint testing. Cyclists sat on the leg press with their foot placed firmly on the plate and the knee angle set to approximately 90° using a manual goniometer. A seatbelt was used to secure their hips, and each athlete completed a 50% maximal effort before starting the trial efforts. Starting with the right leg, athletes built up to a maximal effort for 4-5 seconds to avoid any countermovement. Athletes took a 60-second break between within-leg efforts and a 2-minute passive rest before the process was repeated on the left leg. Peak force (N) was recorded for each trial, and the average between the effort of both legs was used for analysis. It should be noted that all athletes had at least 1 prior session completing strength testing on the isometric leg press with the current set-up. Statistical Analysis The isometric leg press reliability was tested using the guidelines recommended by Weir (2005). A 2-way repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to measure between trial reliability and separate the variance caused by systematic error versus random error, and no systemic error was observed between the isometric leg press trials (p < .05). The intraclass correlation coefficient was calculated using the 3,1 model (Shrout & Fleiss, 1979) and found to be 0.99 (95% CI: 0.916, 0.999), indicating good reliability. Pearson correlations were conducted to evaluate the relationships between peak forces in isometric tests, peak power data, and peak torque data. Results Peak force (399.32 ± 144.18 N) from cyclists’ isometric strength tests were significantly correlated with peak power (1482.55 ± 368.30 watts; r = .76, p = .007) and torque (236.00 ± 53.82 N×m; r = 0.79, p < .004) for seated sprint efforts (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Scatterplots depicting correlations between isometric force and peak power (left panel) as well as isometric force and torque (right panel). The shaded grey areas represent 95% confidence intervals. Discussion The significant correlations suggest that peak force in a single-leg isometric press can predict torque and peak power characteristics during a maximal sprint on an SRM cycling ergometer. This provides strength coaches with an alternative way to monitor athletes and provides insight into their strength levels as it relates to cycling performance without using custom-built cycling er... Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Rhaí André Arriel, Anderson Meireles, Hiago Souza, Moacir Marocolo Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the distribution of speed and performance of professional cross-country cyclists on different technical and non-technical sections during a cross-country short track (XCC) mountain biking (MTB) event. Twenty male professional cross-country cyclists (25.9 ± 5.4 years) performed six laps of an XCC International Mountain Bike Cup. In addition to categories [Under 23 (n = 8) and Elite (n = 12)], cyclists were divided into three different groups according to their overall race completion time, being categorized as top (n = 6), middle (n = 8) and bottom (n = 6) placed finishers (race time groups). Average speed (by lap and in five different track sections) was analyzed according to all athletes, categories and race time group. Athletes in general and both categories adopted a positive pacing. Top cyclists adopted a “W-shaped” pacing, while middle and bottom cyclists adopted a positive and reverse J-shaped pacing profile, respectively. Regarding track sections performance, no difference was found between categories (p > 0.05). Furthermore, top cyclists were 18.8% (p < 0.05), 6.7% (p < 0.05) and 4.1% (p < 0.05) faster than bottom cyclists on sustained non-technical uphill, technical short uphill/downhill section and non-technical downhill sections of the track, respectively. The results show that majority of athletes adopted a positive pacing profile during XCC, but the better XCC performance was associated with a “W-shaped” pacing profile and higher performance mainly on sustained non-technical uphill. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Antony Stadnyk Abstract: Introduction Performances in the 4000-metre team pursuit have improved rapidly in recent years. However, limited evidence exists of the training characteristics of track cyclists in preparation for this event. Along with technological advances, changes in physical, mental, tactical, and technical capacities have likely contributed to the improved performances. Understanding the training periodisation eliciting the desired adaptations to optimise performance on race day is of great interest to coaches, practitioners, and athletes. In this exploratory study, we compared the 3-month preparation phases prior to world-record performances to identify similarities and differences in the physical preparation of an elite team pursuit squad. Materials and Methods Subjects — Five male track endurance cyclists — members of the Australian Cycling Team during the 2018 and 2019 seasons — participated in the study. Research approval was granted by the national federation prior to athletes providing informed consent. The study was approved by the University of Technology Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee and complied with the Declaration of Helsinki. Design — The exploratory study design analysed athlete testing, training, and performance data in the 13-week period prior to each world-record performance (WR1, 05 Apr 2018; WR2, 28 Feb 2019). Methodology — Training diaries were exported from TrainingPeaks™ (CO, USA) for systematic inspection and coding in Excel 2016 (Microsoft, WA, USA). Individual session files were analysed in Golden Cheetah v3.5 (GPL v2 open-source license, UK) and exported as 1-Hz raw data for grouped analyses and modelling in R v4.0.2 (R Core Team, 2021). Training intensity distributions were calculated using lab-based test data for traditional (LIT [below LT1] < MIT < HIT [above LT2]) and team pursuit race-relative (Follow [Wheels 2-4] < Average [W1-4] < Lead [W1]) thresholds. Statistical Analysis — Week-to-week intensity distribution and load accumulation for power and torque were calculated. Data are presented as mean ± SD. Where appropriate, time-matched paired t-tests were performed to assess between-season differences. Results Pyramidal intensity distributions were observed weekly for power output with 81 ± 6% and 81 ± 4% of total time spent below LT1 (LIT) in the 2018 and 2019 seasons, respectively (Figure 1). Similar average weekly volumes were observed at moderate (13 ± 5% and 12 ± 3%) and high (6 ± 3% and 6 ± 3%) intensities between seasons. Athletes accumulated greater proportions of training above the respective world-record race-relevant torque in the second season (Figure 2), with 6.2 ± 2.3% (vs 3.2 ± 1.5%) spent above WR Lead torque demands. Greater variation in gear and pace evolution was observed during training sessions in the second season as the team integrated gym- and bike-based strength development toward their race target pace. Discussion This was the first study to compare the training intensity distribution and load accumulation of an elite team pursuit cycling squad in the lead-up to two successive world-record performances. Analyses found a pyramidal intensity distribution was common in the athletes' training between seasons, with most bike-specific training performed at low intensities, with only a small amount at high intensity. However, a greater volume of training was accumulated at intensities above race-relevant (i.e., WR Lead, Average, and Follow) power and torque demands. In the second season, training emphasis was placed on continued development of peak torque and rate of force development, as well as tolerance of higher gear sizes and the associated neuromuscular stress. Modifications to track training sessions allowed the athletes to accumulate greater high-intensity load while still getting necessary race-distance volume. These manipulations of work, recovery, gear sizing and pace, allowed for specific targeting of metabolic adaptations within race-specific efforts. Practical Applications. Elite team pursuit cyclists can develop performance in a track-focused program supported by well-structured road-based volume. Integration of bike- and gym-based force development can allow athletes to produce and tolerate the neuromuscular loads required for world-record performances. Increases in torque production and tolerance through the use of larger gear sizes, along with variations in pace, and manipulation of work and recovery during track sessions may contribute to improved team pursuit performance. These findings may be beneficial to coaches, athletes, and practitioners in training planning and the development of team pursuit cyclists. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Leo Bell Abstract: Coconut water is used in replacement of sports drinks for hydration during endurance cycling, however evidence to support it is limited. This study determined if drinking coconut water compared to a sports drink altered cycling performance and physiology. In a randomized cross-over trial, 19 experienced male (n=15) and female (n=4) cyclists (age 30±9 years, body mass 79±11 kg, V̇O2 peak 55±8 mL.kg-1.min-1) completed two experimental trials consuming either a commercially available sports drink or iso-calorific coconut water during 90 minutes of sub-maximal cycling at 70% of peak power output, followed by a simulated, variable gradient, 20-km time trial. Blood glucose, lactate, sweat loss, and heart rate were monitored throughout 90 minutes of sub-maximal cycling, as well as time trial performance (seconds) and average power (watts). A repeated measures analysis of variance and effect sizes (Cohen’s d) analysis were applied. There were no significant differences (p ≥ 0.05) between treatments for any measured physiological or performance variables. Additionally, effect size analysis showed only trivial (d ≤ 0.2) differences between treatments for all measured variables, except blood glucose, which was lower in the coconut-water trial compared to the sports drink trial (d = 0.31). Consuming coconut water has a similar effect on cycling time trial performance and physiological responses to consuming a commercially available sports drink. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Greg Lewandowski Abstract: Relationship Between Isometric Peak Force and Sprinting in Cycling Performance within Elite Track Cyclists Greg Lewandowski 1,2, Stephen McMullan 1,2 1Canadian Sport Institute Ontario, 2Cycling Canada Keywords: Isometric, Strength, Force, Torque, Power, Cycling, Sprint Introduction Isometric strength tests have been shown to provide valuable information on force-time characteristics in various sporting movements, including running, cycling and jumping (Kordi et al., 2017, 2020; Lum et al., 2020). There is a growing interest in monitoring off-bike isometric strength levels and examining their relationship with bike-specific metrics. In particular, it has been found that isometric strength measured on an adapted cycling ergometer is a predictor of maximal torque and peak power (Kordi et al., 2017, 2020) However, the relationship between angle-specific isometric force-time characteristics measured using a strain gauge instrument fixed on a leg press and sprint cycling performance has not been thoroughly investigated. We propose that this setup would enable practitioners to track strength levels without requiring cycling-specific equipment and implement joint angle-specific isometric training in the weight room. Such information could help improve the effectiveness of strength training programs for cyclists. Subjects Eleven elite (McKay et al. 2021) track cyclists (3 female; 8 male) - six sprint and five endurance (mean ± SD age: 24.1 years ± 3.5, body mass 82.3 kg ± 12.6 kg) Methodology Ergometer Sprint Testing Maximal sprint testing was conducted on an SRM cycle ergometer (Julich, Germany) equipped with a dynamically calibrated scientific version SRM power meter (Gardener et al., 2004). To warm up for the maximal sprint test, cyclists performed 15 minutes of self-directed cycling. Next, they performed two maximal 6-second sprints from a full stop while seated. Each cyclist was fitted with equipment of similar geometry (e.g., seat height, seat setback, bar height, crank length) to their track bicycles used in training and racing. Data were recorded at 5 Hz, generating values representing one-revolution average (MacIntosh et al. 2004). Isometric Leg Press Set Up The strain gauge was attached to the leg press with a chain. Cyclists sat on the leg press with their foot placed firmly on the plate and the knee angle set to approximately 90° using a manual goniometer. A seatbelt was used to secure their hips, and each athlete completed a 50% maximal effort before starting the trial efforts. Starting with the right leg, athletes gradually built up to a maximal effort for 4-5 seconds to avoid any countermovement. Athletes took a 60-second break between efforts and a 2-minute passive rest before the process was repeated on the left leg. Peak force (N) was recorded for each trial, and the average between the effort of both legs was used for analysis. Statistical Analysis The isometric leg press test’s reliability was tested using the guidelines recommended by Weir (2005). A 2-way repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to measure between trail reliability and separate the variance caused by systematic error versus random error, and no systemic error was observed between the isometric leg press trials (p < .05). The intraclass correlation coefficient was calculated using the 3,1 model (Shrout & Fleiss, 1979) and found to be 0.99 (95% CI: 0.916, 0.999), indicating good reliability. Pearson correlations were conducted to evaluate the relationships between peak forces in isometric tests, peak power data, and peak torque data. Results Peak force (399.32 ± 144.18 N) from cyclists’ isometric strength tests were significantly correlated with peak power (1482.55 ± 368.30 watts; r = .76, p = .007) and torque (236.00 ± 53.82 N×m; r = 0.79, p < .004) for seated sprint efforts (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Scatterplots depicting correlations between isometric force and peak power (left panel) as well as isometric force and torque (right panel). The shaded grey areas represent 95% confidence intervals. Discussion The significant correlations suggest that peak force in a single-leg isometric press can predict torque and peak power characteristics during a maximal sprint on an SRM cycling ergometer. This provides coaches with an easier way to monitor athletes and provides insight into their strength levels as it relates to cycling performance without using custom-built cycling ergometers (Kordi et al., 2020). Practical Application This protocol provides practitioners with an easy-to-administer, task-specific and safe testing tool to infer an athlete’s progress, especially when cyclists cannot access a power meter or laboratory-grade cycling ergometer and coaches need to baseline or talent identification. Practitioners can now use this information to devise isometric training protocols withing a weightroom, knowing that there is a strong relationship with the ability to produce peak power and torque. Future work is warranted to investigate the longitudinal utility of peak isometric force to assess changes in peak torque and peak power in elite track cyclists. References Gardner, A. S., Stephens, S., Martin, D. T., Lawton, E., Lee, H., & Jenkins, D. (2004). Accuracy of SRM and power tap power monitoring systems for bicycling. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36(7), 1252-1258. 2.Kordi, M., Folland, J. P., Goodall, S., Menzies, C., Patel,... Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Christopher Brown, Toon Huysmans, Wouter Terra, Mark Thompson, David Burton Abstract: In this research program, we have created a generic cyclist model with an open-source geometry that other researchers can use for aerodynamic investigations. A selection of 14 professional male athletes was scanned in the endurance posture, equivalent to the time-trial position. The surface geometry scans were processed and combined into one model through an averaging procedure. This procedure involved creating a base mesh and articulating it into roughly the same position. Reference landmark points are then defined on the base mesh and the 3D scans at meaningful anatomical locations. This allows aligning and non-rigidly registering the two, ensuring each scanned athlete has the same mesh connectivity. Once registered, a weighted average of surface meshes is computed to generate a generic cycling model. The weighting was adjusted to match the anthropometrics of professional cyclists competing in the 2012 London Olympics Road Race. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Kevin Caen Abstract: Functional threshold power (FTP) is a very popular metric in recreational and competitive cycling to evaluate, monitor and predict performance. This “threshold” is defined as the power output that a rider can maintain for one hour and is mostly determined by calculating 95% of the mean power output performed during a 20-min time trial. The popularity of FTP mainly originates from its practical feasibility, however, the scientific basis of this concept can be questioned. In this presentation, the physiological meaning of FTP and its relationship to other threshold concepts, such as critical power and the maximal lactate steady state, will be critically evaluated. Based on the most recent insights from literature, both the advantages and disadvantages of utilizing FTP in research and practice will be delineated. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Deena Blacking Abstract: OBJECTIVE In recent years, women’s elite cycling has made several sizeable steps towards professionalisation (1). However, there are still many disparities and challenges which impede the creation of an optimal environment for the highest levels of sporting performance in the women’s peloton. Further, there is relatively little research and information available about women’s professional cycling. This paper presents the findings of 9 separate surveys of the women’s professional peloton which span the period 2017 to 2022. The surveys make enquiries into the working conditions and experiences of professional female cyclists. The information gathered via these surveys is unique, informative and provides insight into the evolution and current state of the women’s professional peloton. This is the first presentation of all survey results. DESIGN Nine surveys (see Table 1) were conducted by, or on behalf of The Cyclists’ Alliance (TCA), an independent labour union for women in professional cycling which was founded in 2017 by professional female road cyclists following the results of the first survey. Topics surveyed included: salaries; the need for a second job; number of years racing; race days; education level and (concurrent) study, and the use of agents and legal assistance. The surveys also gathered views and testaments about psycho-socio cultural questions and experiences in the women’s professional peloton, including perceptions of safety, happiness and clarity of role expectations. TABLE 1 Survey: year and number of respondents Survey No. Year survey conducted Number of unique respondents 01 2017 196 02 2017 126 03 2018 112 04 2019 128 05 2020 98 06 2021 97 07 2021 74 08 2021 76 09 2022 124 RESULTS The results tend to show a general growth in professionalisation, evidenced by increases in wages and an increased use of agents and legal assistance. However, data also suggests growing disparity across the peloton between World Tour and Continental teams. For example, many riders in Continental teams that compete in World Tour races receive less than a living wage or no salary at all. The most recent survey (2022) revealed that the primary reason for ‘leaving the sport early’ is ‘financial reasons’. Qualitative responses regarding team culture and working conditions reveal some positive trends (such as an increase in reporting on ‘happiness’ between 2021 and 2022). However, riders in all levels of team continue to experience situations, scenarios and working conditions which are not conducive to performance. In some cases, riders reported unsafe practices, such as pressure to race when concussed. It is the intention that the findings presented in this paper can provide a platform for future research and development of the women’s professional peloton. (1) van Erp, T. (2019). The Development of Women’s Professional Cycling. Journal of Science and Cycling, 8(3), 1-2. https://doi.org/10.28985/1920.jsc.01 Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Chantelle du Plessis Abstract: It is known that strength, exercise tolerance, physiological capacities, motor coordination and control may be reduced in cerebral palsy athletes due to muscle weakness, joint range of motion limitations and spasticity, when compared to their able-bodied counterparts (Lepretre et al., 2012, Fletcher et al., 2021). Consequently, investigating an individual’s physiological and biomechanical profile is warranted to provide a fundamental understanding of their potentially unique energetic capacities and movement patterns. Such information could be used to develop individualised training programs and racing strategies, especially within an elite para-cycling environment. Initial observations within our high-performance institute of an elite female para-cyclist, who has cerebral palsy, have indicated bilateral differences in strength and coordination in her upper and lower body, with the right side more affected. As a result, the support team’s focus has been to optimise bicycle position, including to investigate different crank lengths, to potentially minimise, and importantly, improve bilateral differences. Therefore, an investigation is underway that uses the cycling energetic testing framework already developed as part of the institute’s research activities to assess the physiological and biomechanical profile of this world-class female para-cyclist, and to understand the potential effects on this profile when manipulating the crank lengths. During cycling, the power delivered to the bicycle cranks is a result of the sum of the ankle, knee and hip joint-specific powers transferred through the limb-segments (van Ingen Schenau et al., 1990); with the hip extension power shown to dominate through a range of increasing workloads from 250 W to short, maximal sprints in able-bodied cyclists (Elmer et al., 2011). Moreover, although most of the existing research has concluded that crank lengths used within the practical limits (165-175 mm) do not impact the athlete’s ability to produce peak power during short, maximal sprinting (Martin and Spirduso, 2001), joint-specific power contributions may shift towards the larger proximal hip joint (Barratt et al., 2011, 2016) and may influence longer duration efforts differently. We do not currently know whether the right-limb asymmetry of our female para-cyclist influences her joint-level biomechanics, nor whether her hip joint, in particular, is affected by crank length changes. Overall, any change in joint level contribution may impact muscle contributions surrounding these joints. This may influence the energy cost of the working muscles, and the total, whole-body, energy cost, which could result in an increase the rate of performance fatigue. Alternatively, it is possible that a movement pattern strategy could involve shifting the joint contributions to recruit muscles that are able to do more work before they fatigue; possibly minimising whole-body- physiological cost and delaying the onset of fatigue. In line with this reasoning, the aim of this analysis is to enhance this fundamental understanding of the energetic profile of our female para-cyclist to explore potential opportunities for performance improvement in upcoming key benchmark events. The data collection procedures involved the athlete cycling on a Lode Excalibur Sport cycle ergometer where left and right pedal force application were measured through instrumented bicycle cranks, 3-D motion was captured through Vicon Motion Analysis system, and muscle activation patterns were investigated through EMG. In addition, oxygen consumption and blood lactate concentration were measured to assess the physiological cost of movement. Data analysis of the key parameters will be completed, and final results will be presented at the conference. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Salvatore Cafiso, Giuseppina Pappalardo, Riccardo Caponetto, Oliver Giudice Abstract: With the increasing concerns of greenhouse gases and pollution, policy makers are supporting cycling as commuter mode of transport in urban areas. Moreover, during Covid-19 period, cycling was further appreciated by citizens as an individual opportunity of mobility. Unfortunately, as bicycle use increases, at the same time the rate of bicycles involved in road crashes has increased, as well. Data coming from European statistics shows that the rate of fatal accidents for cyclists in urban roads has increased from 2010 to 2018 by +6% in contrast to the decrease of all the other modes of transport. Therefore, cyclists’ behavior, safety, and comfort is becoming more and more of interest for research. Compared to the other mode of transport that are moving to always higher levels of automation, the micro-mobility vehicles (e.g. bicycle, e-scooters) suffer of a "digital divide" in terms of availability of technologies and sensors on board, often limited only to the smartphone capabilities (i.e low frequency GPS, camera, accelerometers). That limits the opportunities for high dimension and quality data collection and analysis. This paper present a multi sensor data acquisition system designed to be installed on a bicycle. Within the "Safedemon" project, a hardware architecture and processing system were developed which acts as a data logger for different types of sensors with a synchronization system based on UTM time. The system is modular and allows to acquire and synchronize high-frequency data from different sets of sensors: A) Sensors of physical data related to driving dynamics (GNSS/IMU) The first group consists of a GNSS/INS solution that integrates a multiband RTK/GNSS receiver, which can monitor the global GNSS constellations (GPS, GLONASS, GALILEO, Beidou, QZSS) with the ability to track up to 80 channels. To support the receiver, and to improve the accuracy of position fix during GNSS interruptions, there is a 6-axis inertial sensor array (3-axis accelerometer and 3-axis gyroscope). The whole system can ensure, through the integration of Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) and Precise Point Positioning (PPP) algorithms , sub-meter level accuracy at a measurement frequency of up to 100Hz even in the shortage or prolonged absence of any GNSS signal. Moreover, 3 axial accelerations and rotations can be recorded till to the higher frequency of 200 Hz. B) Sensors related to driver behavior and workload (eye tracker, EEG, HR) The second group consists of 3 wearable devices: 1) an earphone which, by means of a biometric sensor, allows continuous measurement of heart rate, oxygen saturation and blood pressure; 2) a headset that allows to measure the electrical activity of the brain (EEG) in the EEG power spectra (Alpha waves, Beta waves); 3) an eye tracker consisting of glasses with an integrated video camera system designed to frame what is in front of the wearer of the glasses. The orientation of the pupils is then calculated on this image in order to effectively estimate where the user is looking (gaze). To avoid clutter and interference with user comfort, all wearable device data is transmitted as a serial stream of bytes over Bluetooth via a standard Bluetooth Serial Port Profile (SPP). C) Sensors for analyzing the road context (camera, radar) The third group of sensors is devoted to detect the road environment and traffic conditions around the probe vehicle. It is composed by two cameras with an overall Field of View of 180 degrees and a 79 GHz short range radar to detect and track range, velocity, and angle of any moving object in the field of view of the sensor. The system has been evaluated and tested to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the collected data. As a result, the proposed system allows highway researchers to select among a wide range of measures to analyze the behavior, safety, and comfort of the cyclists riding In any road and traffic context. Additionally, the system can be easily installed to other micro mobility vehicles like e-scooter. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Kevin Van Hoovels, Jan Boone, Maria Cuartero, Gaston A Crespo Abstract: The use of wearable sensors in cycling is rising. Besides heart rate, we can now measure more and more variables in real-time like glucose (in interstitial fluid), core body temperature (at the heart rate belt), muscle oxygenation (with NIRS at the upper leg), and sweat rate (with wearable sensors). These sensors can give more insights into what is happening during exercise and can be used to optimize performance. However, the usefulness of some of these different measurements is still under debate. One of the recent additions to the list of variables that can be measured with wearable sensors is the concentration of lactate in sweat. Since blood lactate is a key performance indicator in sport physiology and can be used to monitor exercise intensity, there is a lot of interest in measuring lactate during exercise. Nonetheless, blood lactate has the disadvantages that it is invasive, painful, not continuous, and that the exercise has to be interrupted to measure. If lactate can be measure non-invasively and in real-time in sweat, this will open much more insights and possibilities to monitor lactate during exercise. However, the relationship between sweat lactate and blood lactate still remains unclear. Since sweat lactate concentrations are higher in sweat (1-30 mM) than in blood (1-15 mM), there is debate on the origin of lactate in sweat. Lactate can be produced by the sweat glands itself, derivate from the lactate in blood, or a combination of both. Further research is needed to explore the origin of lactate in sweat. In the past researchers were using different sweat collection methods to analyze lactate in sweat. With these methods sweat was collected during a certain time period and the lactate concentration was analyzed afterwards. Most of these studies found no or even a negative relationship between sweat lactate concentration and exercise intensity. This can probably be explained by the dilution of the sample due to the increase in sweat rate with increasing intensity. With the recent developments in wearable sweat sensors, sweat lactate can now be measured continuously when there is a constant supply of new sweat. Using these sensors, there is no dilution of the samples which can results in a positive relationship between sweat lactate and exercise intensity (and also blood lactate). This article will give an overview of the existing literature about the link between sweat lactate and exercise, and the usability of wearable sweat lactate measurements in endurance sports like cycling. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
Authors:Alireza Iri Abstract: Monitoring athletes has become an integral part of the overall preparation of athletes. Many athletes, coaches, and support staff are adopting an increasingly scientific approach to designing and monitoring training programs. The challenge for practitioners is to stop collecting data for no reason but to use all this information to help their athletes improve their performance. Systematic monitoring of physiological and psychological variables related to performance helps practitioners measure the effectiveness of their training programs and decide how to modify or update those programs. As mentioned, individuals need to understand the reasons for monitoring athletes and how to use the information to improve their performance. which will increase the effectiveness of any monitoring program from the side of athletes and practitioners. One of the most important variables in road cycling is functional threshold power (FTP), which is obtained by a 20-minute FTP test and the average power output of cyclists in relation to their weight (W/Kg). We conducted a 20-minute FTP test at the Iran Cycling Federation testing center before the 2022 Asian Championship in the national team camps of those invited to the camp in three stages out of twenty people. First, the cyclists were weighed before the test. And testing was done. And by reviewing the test results and power profiles of cyclists, the training and progress of cyclists were monitored. By checking the power profile or W/Kg of the cyclists in the last stage, we were able to introduce the best 7 people to the coach by considering the needs of the national team coach. The results obtained in the last stage of testing from 7 average cyclists' Power on weight was 4.36 and with an average weight of 69.01. Monitoring was done officially for the first time in the Iranian Cycling Federation. And with monitoring and analysis, we were able to monitor the people invited to the 3 stages of the camp and monitor their progress and finally choose the best people. Iran's men's national cycling team was able to win 3 medals in this competition. Monitoring and analysis of cyclists can be done in more time before the competition, and if we consider other factors, better results will definitely be obtained. Issue No:Vol. 11, No. 3
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