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Abstract: Abstract The present study evaluated the physico-chemical properties of water in an ecologically sensitive floodplain wetland of India, Kapla Beel, and analysed the status of its water quality. Water samples were collected monthly from December, 2019 to November, 2020 to examine the physico-chemical parameters using standard methods, results of which were compared with National (Bureau of Indian Standards) and International (World Health Organization) drinking water standards. Calculated values of turbidity, total hardness (TH), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and Alkalinity exceeded the acceptable limits. A distinct seasonal variation among the water quality parameters was observed during the study period. Parameters viz. pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD), alkalinity and chloride showed the highest values during the winter season; while two variables i.e. magnesium and nitrate showed maximum values in the premonsoon season. In the monsoon season, peak values were recorded by seven physico-chemical parameters, viz. water temperature, conductivity, turbidity, total dissolved solids, sodium, potassium and sulphate. On the other hand, variables such as COD, Calcium and TH showed the highest concentration in post-monsoon season. Pearson’s correlation coefficient depicted a significant correlation among the parameters. One-way ANOVA showed that seasonal difference in physicochemical parameters was statistically significant for water temperature, turbidity, TDS, alkalinity, potassium, sodium, sulphate, pH, nitrate, calcium, DO, BOD, conductivity (p < 0.05). To determine the overall water quality status of the study area and to examine the potentiality of its water for different uses, the Water quality index rating indicates ‘poor’ water quality status of the wetland. PubDate: 2024-09-01
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Abstract: Abstract The present work was carried out to evaluate subsurface water quality for drinking purposes in the coastal region of Andhra Pradesh, India. The samples were collected from 80 locations covering in pre-monsoon season (PRM) and post-monsoon season (POM) during 2018–2019. The groundwater mainly consists of Na-Mg-Cl-HCO3 and Na-Cl-HCO3 type explaining the influence of seawater intrusion, marine sediments, and leaching of minerals in clay horizons. The result of principal component analysis (PCA) revealed Na+ and Cl− have positive loads on both PC 1 and PC 2 corroborating reverse ion exchange and the anthropogenic activities. Evaporation dominance and dissolved carbonates of clay soils in the groundwater are indicated by Gibbs plots. PCA scores were taken into consideration in developing a groundwater quality index (GWQI) to classify water quality as excellent to good (4%), poor to very poor (92% in PRM and 70% in POM), and unfit (4% in PRM and 30% in POM) for drinking. Geospatial techniques have been used in preparing spatial and temporal distribution maps for various water quality parameters. The integrated approach adopted in the study are a cost-effective and time saving tool involved in assessing environmental problems more precisely. This study is expected to provide reliable information for stakeholders in understanding various types of pollutants in groundwater chemistry. PubDate: 2024-09-01
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Abstract: Abstract There is a significant regional variation in India's consumption patterns of electricity despite a steady rise in electrical demand. Utilizing hourly, daily, and annual data, this study analyzes electricity demand trends in Rajasthan and Maharashtra. These predictions represent a confluence of historical data analysis and advanced machine learning techniques, offering insights into future electricity demand that can inform policy-making, infrastructure development, and energy planning in the context of growing environmental and economic challenges. Despite Maharashtra's larger industrial and residential base, Rajasthan's moderate growth contrasts with its high, fluctuating demand. Detailed investigation reveals increasing annual consumption in both states, with seasonal peaks likely linked to cooling load. Moreover, the findings highlight the need for energy policies and infrastructure that are aligned with the socioeconomic composition of each state. Linkages with tourism are also explored. This comparative analysis provides valuable insight into how electricity infrastructure should be planned for future sustainable development. PubDate: 2024-09-01
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Abstract: Abstract The design of a building’s envelope can considerably affect the building’s energy performance. However, finding the best building envelope parameters to achieve the optimal design in respect to the energy performance is a complicated task. Therefore, some different methods have been developed to optimize building envelope parameters to achieve better thermal behaviour and energy consumption. Many types of smart claddings and kinetics have been developed, but their details remain unclear and unstructured. The smart cladding discussed in this work is defined as an integrated sustainable tool to control energy consumption regarding comfort parameters. These parameters directly affect the occupant’s behaviour, and considering these parameters helps to achieve better practical results. This paper aims to design a control system process and its supporting theory, to develop a model of smart cladding. In order to clarify the theory (methodology), related calculations are provided based on formulations. The obtained data was validated by the carrier hourly analysis program (HAP) v4.90. During the design of the mentioned control system, effective parameters are investigated; such as glazing ratio, visual comfort and the effect of dwelling occupation on heat transfer. The research took into account both full-time and part-time employment as two separate time periods during the day. The energy consumption was evaluated regarding different parameters, such as visual comfort and occupation period; and the results show a heat transfer reduction of approximately half. Consequently, the smart cladding’s design increased energy savings by 45%. PubDate: 2024-09-01
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Abstract: Abstract The study integrates geophysical and geochemical methods so as to evaluates the protective strength and the quality of groundwater within the Nsukka campus of the University of Nigeria. Thirteen vertical electrical sounding (VES) points help in delineating the subsurface strata resulting to five geoelectric layers. The values of aquifer resistivity and thickness were used in estimating the longitudinal conductance, transverse resistance, hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity. The longitudinal conductance ranged from 0.018 to 0.093 \({\Omega }^{-1}\) , transverse resistance ranged from 91,370.52 to 772,493.50 \(\Omega {\mathrm{m}}^{2}\) , while hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity ranged from 0.1209 to 0.5405 \(\mathrm{m}/\mathrm{day}\) and 12.3988 to 58.0114 \({\mathrm{m}}^{2}/\mathrm{day}\) ,respectively. These parameters illustrate the hydrogeologic characteristics of the aquifer units. The analysis and interpretation of the water samples revealed that the concentration of the total dissolved solute (TDS), cations and anions where below the World Health Organisation standard (WHO), the only exception was \({\mathrm{Fe}}^{2+}\) that exceeded limit in some boreholes. The Magnesium Hazard (MH), Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) and Sodium percentage (Na%) show the irrigation suitability of the groundwater of the area in order to boost agricultural yield. PubDate: 2024-09-01
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Abstract: Abstract Bio-briquette has been regarded as an eco-friendly, carbon–neutral, renewable, biodegradable, greener, low emissive or smokeless, and an alternative source of energy that can supersede traditional charcoal, fuel wood, and coal. It can be synthesized from biomass materials via densification or thermo-physical processes. Biomass densification or briquetting is a process of transforming biomass feedstocks into bio-briquettes via compaction pressure providing solid fuel with better physical attributes and high energy content per unit volume of biomass thereby ascertaining the ease of product handling, transportation, and storage. This study acquaints insight into factors or operational variables affecting the quality and performance of bio-briquettes produced from biomass. The main influential factors involved in the briquetting process include initial moisture content in the biomass feedstock, types and compositions of the biomass, particle size, types and concentration of the employed binding agent, solid-to-binder ratio, the magnitude of applied compression pressure, types of the employed briquetting technology, and final moisture content in the produced bio-briquette. These operational variables should be controlled appropriately and optimized to carry out densification or transformation of biomass materials to obtain the bio-briquette with good combustion characteristics and desired product quality (i.e., high energy content per unit volume, dimensional stability, mechanical strength, and durability) at a minimal possible cost of operation. PubDate: 2024-09-01
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Abstract: Abstract Chemical-based ground enhancing materials are key component of an efficient earthing system. However, economic and environmental considerations have refocused current research on greener, cost effective and locally available alternatives like bentonite and biochar of some agro-wastes. In this research, the viability of the biochar and conductive concrete of some locally available agro-wastes as ground enhancing materials were studied. Here, selected physical, chemical and mechanical properties of coconut husk char, cocoa husk char, sawdust char, sugarcane bagasse and rice husk char were studied relative to bentonite. Also, the relative importance of the contribution of the study physicochemical and mechanical parameters to ground resistance were considered. The results of this study suggests that cocoa husk char is similar to bentonites in physical and chemical characteristics compared to their other counterparts (coconut husk char, sugar cane bagasse, sawdust char and rice husk char, respectively) while coconut husk char is similar in its mechanical properties to bentonite. Recorded values for bulk density, moisture content, resistivity, pH, electrical conductivity, and effective cation exchange capacity for cocoa husk char were similar to that of bentonite. However, recorded values for compressibility, flow rate and failure load of coconut Husk were most similar to those of bentonite. Notably, coconut husk char and not cocoa husk char proved to be a better alternative for bentonite. This suggests that the study’s mechanical properties are important selection criteria for potential ground enhancing materials. PubDate: 2024-09-01
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Abstract: Groundwater contamination is a major concern in the raffia city of Ikot Ekpene as a result of increasing domestic and industrial wastes occasioned by increasing human population coupled with other commercial activities in the area. This study, therefore, aims at assessing groundwater vulnerability in the raffia city of Ikot Ekpene and its environs in southern Nigeria using integrated geoelectrical and geological techniques in the GIS-based DRASTIC model. Twenty vertical electrical soundings (VES) were made in the area with the use of the Schlumberger array. The results of the VES data interpretation as constrained by the geological borehole data indicate that the area comprises 3–4 geoelectric layers. The lithological sequence in the area varies from fine to coarse sand and gravelly sands with pockets of clay intercalations at some locations. The third geoelectric layer, which occurs at a depth of 9.0–86.6 m, is the major exploitable aquifer in the area. Seven environmental parameters (depth to the water table, net recharge, aquifer media, topography, impact of vadose zone and hydraulic conductivity) were used for the vulnerability assessment in the DRASTIC model. In terms of groundwater vulnerability ratings (GVR), the result of the assessment shows that 75% of the study area falls under high, 20% falls under moderate while the remaining 5% falls under low ratings respectively. On the whole, 95% of the study area is characterized by moderate/high GVR possibly due to the general lower slope terrain in the area, which comprises mostly high permeable geomaterials in the overlying water table layers. The high groundwater vulnerability zone has been demarcated in the vulnerability map generated and this could be very helpful in effective groundwater management and abstraction in the area. PubDate: 2024-09-01
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Abstract: Abstract PSF is developed to purify surface (pond) water to meet the domestic consumption in the coastal regions of Bangladesh. The objectives are to assess PSF water quality through WQI, HEI, HPI and HI; assess filtration efficiency through 18 parameters; health issues and management practices of PSF water in two coastal areas of Bangladesh. Khontakata (Bagerhat) and Helatala (Satkhira) Unions are purposively selected from shoreline (A) and inland (B) area based on the distance from the coastline of the country. Total 64 samples (equally distributed between PSF and the respective pond) from 16 sampling locations are experimented with 18 physio-chemical and heavy metals to accomplish the study. Furthermore, four FGDs are also conducted with a predetermined checklist to understand the health issues and current management practices of PSF. The study reveals that all heavy metals are within the permissible limit for all sampling locations except one station (only lead) of inland village. Mean of WQI, HPI and HIadult follow the reducing trend and HEI, HIinfant, HIchild follow the increasing trend from shoreline to inland area. Therefore, it is argued that 50% water samples from both A and B areas are categorized into ‘good’ based on WQI. In addition, HEI results show that 60% and 83.33% water samples from A and B areas are categorized into ‘no effect’ and ‘slightly affected’, respectively. Depending upon HPI, 40% and 83.33% water samples from these areas are categorized into ‘slightly affected’ and ‘no effect’, respectively. About 90% and 70% water samples (shoreline) and 100% samples (inland) are unsafe (HI > 1) for child and adult. Ultimately, human health may deteriorate for long-term consumption of contaminated water. Finally, FGDs claim that people participate in maintenance and operational activities willingly; sometimes, it will not be possible because of village politics or grouping among the households. The owner of the pond is dedicated to perform the necessary repairing and operational activities in the shoreline area, but people of the inland area are fully dependent on government aid or financing. In this regard, intensive care and frequent checkup along with cooperation and coordination among different stakeholders may ensure the better performance of PSF. PubDate: 2024-09-01
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Abstract: Abstract The purpose of this paper is to activate an eruptive well named X (for confidential reasons) with free gas by using an electric submersible pump (ESP) with a free gas separator in order to heighten its production. The well design data are processed by using PIPESIM software. Thanks to the nodal analysis, the estimated initial flow rate of eruptive X well is 898 stb/d for a pressure of 3354 psi, and the amount of reserves is estimated at four million barrels. After installing the ESP with free gas separator, a sensitivity analysis on parameters such as the number of stages and the frequency of the pump is carried out in order to find the optimal values for which the production flow would increase. The flow rate obtained after optimization is 2417 stb/d with a pressure of 1897 psi and the economic profitability of production is spread over thirteen years with maintenance on the pump every three years. This operation generated total expenditures worth $ 10,843,075,403 for total revenues of $ 97,483,213,654 and a total production profit of $ 9,152,939,013.84 with a return on investment within one year from the year of production. PubDate: 2024-09-01
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Abstract: Abstract The study involves the hydro-geophysical investigation of the Petroleum Training Institute (PTI) Land, Osubi, Delta State. It engages forty-two vertical electrical soundings (VES) points based on the Schlumberger configuration to delineate aquifers and the associated overburden integrity. Studies, as described, are uncommon in the study location. The presented curves, which include A.A., AK, K.Q., Q.H., and K.H. and the more complex curves like HAAAA and KHKHK, depict the near-surface characteristics related to the aquifers. Three to six subsurface layers are revealed, including top-soil, clayey sand, sandy clay, the potential aquifer and the bedrock (hard rock). Across all the VES points, the top-soil resistivity values vary between 13.3 Ωm and 149.4 Ωm, with layer thicknesses ranging from 0.1 2 m to 3 m. The second layer resistivity values range from 12.4 Ωm to 643.8 Ωm, with thicknesses ranging from 0.3 m to 2.6 m. The third layer resistivity ranges from 35.0 Ωm to 6834.6 Ωm, with layer thicknesses ranging from 0.6 m to 23.5 m. The fourth and fifth layers’ resistivity values range from 68.8 Ωm to infinity (∞), and thicknesses range from 1.5 m to ∞. The overburden integrity and aquifer ratings are not evenly distributed, with about twenty-four VES indicating poor/low overburden and fair/marginal aquifer types. Five VES points indicate good overburden capacity, corresponding to excellent aquifer types. Eleven VES points show moderate to good overburden integrity, corresponding to good aquifer types. The presented data are essential inputs in groundwater development programs. The results may also be harnessed for environmental-based and engineering site investigation-related studies. PubDate: 2024-08-08
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Abstract: Abstract Geospatial distribution of heavy metals (HMs) in surface water bodies has attracted global attention due to the associated environmental toxicity and threat to aquatic life. The present study aimed to investigate the concentration of 15 HMs (Al, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, Sr, Zn, and Ag) by using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) in the water and sediment of the perennial river Basuhi. The average concentration of HMs in water was found to be in the order of Co < Cd < Se < Ag < As < Ni < Cu < Cr < Pb < Zn < Mn < Sr < Ba < Al < Fe, whereas in sediments it was found to be Cd < Ag < Se < As < Co < Pb < Cu < Ni < Cr < Zn < Sr < Ba < Mn < Fe < Al. The HM concentration at many places exceeded the safe limit recommended by WHO (1997) and BIS (2012), indicating the unsuitability of water for household activities. Heavy metal pollution index (HPI), degree of contamination (Cdeg), and heavy metal evaluation index (HEI) ranged between 10.21–130.01, 2.84–16.62, and 15.11–137.19 in water, whereas, pollution load index (PLI), geo-accumulation index (Igeo), and potential ecological risk index (PERI) varied between 2.33–3.31, 1.48–3.99, and 0.591 and 9.99 in sediments, respectively. The findings were also subjected to Pearson correlation coefficient and principal component analysis. Intensive agricultural application around the region and the watershed’s geological structure were found to be the most important reasons for the heavy metal distribution in the river. PubDate: 2024-08-03
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Abstract: Abstract This study explores the energy potential of rubber sludge, highlighting its calorific value (13.92–22.15 MJ/kg) and significant organic content, making it a promising feedstock for renewable energy. Techniques such as pyrolysis, anaerobic digestion, combustion, and gasification can effectively harness this potential. Comparative analysis indicates that rubber sludge has an energy recovery potential comparable to or even higher than lignite. Thermochemical processes, including hydrothermal liquefaction and gasification, offer benefits such as reduced waste toxicity and volume, alongside energy and material recovery. However, challenges such as high costs, technical difficulties, and potential pollutant emissions persist. Cost–benefit analyses indicate economic feasibility under specific conditions like high conversion efficiency and favorable policies. Current global practices in rubber sludge management vary, with countries like Denmark, Germany, and Sweden implementing advanced treatments, while others face challenges in coordination and technology. Future research emphasizes improving conversion technologies and integrating hybrid energy systems to enhance energy recovery and reduce environmental impact. The study underscores the importance of life cycle assessments in optimizing the sustainability of rubber sludge-to-energy processes and advocates for innovative approaches through Design Thinking to develop tailored solutions. This comprehensive review highlights the potential of rubber sludge as a renewable energy source and provides a framework for future research and policy development. PubDate: 2024-08-03
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Abstract: Abstract Vegetable oils have been explored as eco-friendly alternatives to mineral oil lubricants. To achieve the required properties, specific chemical modifications are necessary. This study focuses on synthesizing eco-friendly metalworking fluids based on modified cottonseed oil and subsequently converting them into biofuels suitable for internal diesel combustion engines. The experimental section outlines the optimized conditions for the epoxidation and hydroxylation of cottonseed oil, as well as the transesterification process to obtain the biofuel. The epoxidation conversion reached 93%, while the hydroxylation yielded 66%. It was observed that the modified fluids exhibited improved oxidative resistance, resulting in the apparent activation energy for the oxidative process increasing by 50%. The physical and chemical characteristics of the biofuel were determined and compared to the requirements for biodiesel. The density, heating value, and cetane number of the new biofuels were better or similar to traditional biodiesel, indicating that these new biofuels could work as substitutes for traditional biodiesel. However, the new biofuels exhibited less favorable results for properties, such as flash point and Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP), in comparison to commercial biodiesel. These findings underscore the necessity for meticulous storage practices, secure handling procedures, and the avoidance of temperatures exceeding 6 °C. This study presents a pathway for synthesizing eco-friendly metalworking fluids and converting them into biofuels, contributing to sustainability efforts in the manufacturing industry while addressing the environmental concerns associated with metalworking fluid waste. PubDate: 2024-08-01
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Abstract: Abstract Solar panel cooling is very much required to sustain its performance. In contrast, air cooling requires small changes in the design of solar panel and has good feasibility to conversion in the actual model. In this research article, a 100 W solar panel was simulated in ANSYS workbench at various solar flux, atmospheric temperature, and the air flow velocity. The numerical results in the form of contour plots of the temperature indicated that if the solar flux and atmospheric temperature are enhanced then, the module temperature increases but the enhancement in the air flow velocity reduces the module temperature. Secondly, the numerical results of the contour plot of temperature also indicate that the maximum temperature hot spot is seen in the middle part of the solar panel. Furthermore, the data obtained from numerical simulation and model equations has been optimized to determine the optimum setting of input and response variables. The optimization work has been completed by Response Surface Methodology (RSM) in MINITAB 17 software. The optimum values of input variables were determined at the maximum values of the solar panel efficiency and exergy efficiency. The optimum solar flux, atmospheric temperature, and air velocity obtained to be 974 W/m2, 22 °C and 6 m/s on which responses solar panel temperature 51.22 °C, power output 65 W, solar panel efficiency 0.1588, exergy entering into the system 385 W and exergy efficiency 0.1695. To validate the optimum results of the RSM, an experimental setup has been developed and data has been collected at these optimum settings. Finally, the percentage variation in the responses has been calculated to know the error of the predicted results of RSM and experimental observation. PubDate: 2024-07-15
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Abstract: Abstract The research aimed to investigate how variations in altitude affect the physiochemical properties of water. Water samples were collected from waterspouts at altitudes ranging from 4146 to 7762 ft during spring season in the Kathmandu Valley. These water samples were collected from water sources of different locations varying altitudes and measured with the help of the smartphone application ‘Accurate Altimeter’. Since there is a limitation of literature on this aspect, the current study was designed to examine the water quality parameters like pH, electrical conductivity, hardness, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, and total solids, etc. The relationship between elevation and parameters is explained by the idea of Karl’s Pearson Coefficient of Correlation. The water sample taken from a drying out stone waterspout named ‘Nag Bahal’ at, Lalitpur at 4253ft was not in usable form and revealed values of water quality parameters that were unrelated to altitude. However, some parametric values of water samples decreased, other increased and some of them were unrelated with the variation of altitude. The study reveals that the physical parameters of water bodies vary, with the altitude of water bodies affecting their water quality. This paper illustrates the dependency of the quality of water on the altitude and topography of the water source. PubDate: 2024-07-13
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Abstract: Abstract The present study was carried out in the N’Djamena and Hadjer-Lamis localities (Lac Chad basin). The main objective was to examine the groundwater quality for domestic and agricultural purposes, using hydro-chemical modeling, Water Quality Index and Geographical Information System Technics. Thus, 66 groundwater samples were collected from 22 boreholes for physicochemical and biological analysis. The analytical parameters considered were: pH, electrical conductivity, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, NH4+, HCO3−, NO3−, F−, SO42−, Fecal Coliform, Total Coliform, Escherichia Coli, Fecal enterococci and Mesophyll Aerobic Flora. The results revealed that groundwater of the studied zone presents a neutrality (6.40 ≤ pH ≤ 7.57), very weakly to weakly mineralized (92 ≤ electrical conductivity ≤ 590 µS/cm) with only one water type (Ca–Mg–HCO3), characteristic of the homogenous quaternary aquifer, the most used. The decreasing order of magnitude of the cations is as: Ca2+˃Mg2+˃Na+˃K+, while that of anions is HCO3−˃Cl−˃SO42−˃NO3−. The Water Quality Index varied from 188.41 to 866.89, corresponding to poor (9.09%), very poor (18%) and unsuitable (72%) for drinking. The poor quality is linked to the presence of bacteriological species. It should therefore be noted that groundwater in N’Djamena and Hadjer-Lamis can be used to irrigate crops, but it should be purified before being used for drinking purposes. In general, this study provides an overview of the aquifers characteristic in the Lake Chad Basin, and calls on local and administrative authorities and development partners to effectively cooperate in the permanent monitoring and preservation of the quality of this water. This would undoubtedly guarantee their sustainable and efficient management. PubDate: 2024-07-05
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Abstract: Abstract This paper presents a comparative analysis of the performance of a single-slope passive solar still using regular water and a water-based nanofluid containing aluminium oxide. The Al2O3 nanoparticles were characterized through X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy. Two identical experimental solar stills with the same basin area were constructed and evaluated for identical thermal performance. The study involved concurrent experiments conducted at the same location and time, with one solar still using water and the other employing a water-based nanofluid with varying concentrations of aluminium oxide. The objective of this study is to assess the impact of using Al2O3 nanofluids on the performance of a passive solar still in comparison to using regular water. The concentrations of Al2O3 nanofluid tested started at 0.05% by volume, with an increment of 0.05% until an optimum distillate output is reached. The results show that the solar still incorporating water-based Al2O3 nanofluid, particularly at a concentration of 0.15%, enhances the water distillate output by 24.11%, indicating an optimal enhancement level. Furthermore, the study observes that Al2O3 nanofluids promote a more significant evaporative heat transfer compared to convective heat transfer. PubDate: 2024-07-02
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Abstract: Abstract Solar distillers represent one of the most important solutions to overcome the problem of freshwater shortages in remote areas, but they have the drawback of their low productivity. Since conical solar distillers represent one of the best designs that are characterized by a large surface for receiving and condensing, so the present study aims to provide an effective solution to achieve the highest productivity of conical solar distillers. To achieve this idea, the black ceramic magnets with dual effects of magnetic field and thermal energy storage were incorporated in the basin of conical solar distillers, to increase the evaporation rates and then improve its productivity. Also, study the optimized distribution of black cylinder ceramic magnets (16 mm diameter and 5 mm height) that achieve the highest productivity of conical solar distillers. To obtain the optimal gap between black cylinder ceramic magnets, four gap distances of 3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm, and 6 cm were studied and compared to a conical distiller without black ceramic magnets. The results presented that the use of black cylinder ceramic magnets represents the effective choice for raising the accumulative yield of conical solar distillers to 7700, 7100, 6650, and 6150 g/m2 day, for gap distances of 3, 4, 5, and 6 cm, respectively compared to 5500 g/m2 day that was produced by reference conical distiller. Finally, 3 cm represents the optimal gap distances of black cylinder ceramic magnets that achieve the highest productivity of the conical distiller with an improvement of 40.00% compared to the reference conical distiller. PubDate: 2024-07-02
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