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Abstract: Abstract Hate crimes in the US have reached their highest recorded levels in more than a decade. Greater understanding of the factors contributing to violence toward minority groups is needed to support evidence-based policies to curb race crime. This study analyzes the causes of race crime in the US using a state-level dynamic empirical model derived from the combination of well-recognized criminological theories. To our knowledge, the study provides the only empirical analyses of race crimes across the US. The paper applies a dynamic panel model to better use crime data at the aggregate level by taking advantage of the longitudinal data structure to account for unobservable factors across states. It also draws upon the dynamic panel structure to integrate the theoretical framework of social learning of crime, together with strain theory and theory of doing difference, to identify potential causal factors. The findings confirm implications derived from strain theory, theories of doing difference, and social learning theory of crime, respectively, indicating the value of an integrated framework. The results suggest “closing gaps” is key in deterring race crime. Over the recent decade, a 1% annual change in key factors that would close the economic gap, increase understanding of cultural difference, incorporate seniors into communities, and stop cascading effects of race crime would, individually, have lowered the 2019 race crime rate by an estimated 12–21% and, in combination, by approximately 28%. Potential policy interventions that merit testing include increasing cultural awareness education, improving access to credit, supporting inter-generational community programs, and appropriate training and resources to support law enforcement personnel to collect, manage, and report race crime data. PubDate: 2023-12-01
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Abstract: Abstract Supporters of American Indian mascots claim that these mascots honor American Indians. If this is the case, then those who have more contact with, and are more supportive of, these mascots would logically demonstrate support for American Indian Peoples in other ways. In this study, we break new ground by employing a cultivation and social learning approach to examine possible associations between greater exposure to American Indian mascots and prejudice toward American Indians, as well as support for their rights. We used an online survey of 903 White Americans to examine associations between long-term exposure to American Indian mascots, attitudes toward Native appropriation, and support for American Indian Peoples. We found that greater exposure to sport media and more contact with American Indian mascots were associated with more prejudice toward and less support for American Indian rights, via double mediators—first via less opposition to American Indian mascots, and second via less opposition to other types of Native appropriation. These findings provide further evidence that American Indian mascots are harmful to American Indians, in this case via their association with higher levels of modern prejudice, less feelings of warmth, and less support for American Indian Nation sovereignty and trust relationship with the United States government. Further, our findings suggest that this harm may be related to lessons learned from the general phenomenon of Native appropriation, which includes acceptance of objectification and dehumanization of American Indians, disregard for their feelings, and legitimation of White settler colonial power. PubDate: 2023-12-01
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Abstract: Abstract Debate over the appropriateness of discussing racism in U.S. educational settings is ongoing. Whereas some believe discussing racism will improve race relations, others argue that such discussions are divisive and cause unnecessary distress, especially among White students. In a preregistered study, we investigated whether people who do not identify as Black or African American indeed experience emotional distress in response to the suggestion that they may have acted in a manner indicating subtle anti-Black bias. Non-Black U.S. college students (N = 326; mean age = 18.86; 69.0% women, 30.4% men, and 0.6% reported another gender; 56.1% White, 16.9% Asian/Pacific Islander, 16.6% Hispanic, 2.1% reported another race/ethnicity, and 5.7% reported multiple racial/ethnic identities) imagined committing two interpersonal transgressions, one of which was race-related. For each transgression, participants reported their feelings about the situation, including how responsible they would feel for perpetrating the transgression and whether they would feel negatively about themselves. Overall, many participants reported feeling responsible and negatively about themselves when imagining committing a race-related transgression. However, this response was more common among participants who scored higher on measures of habitual concern about behaving in nonprejudiced ways, and these participants also tended to report on an open-ended measure that they would react by apologizing and correcting their behavior. Our results suggest that, when discussing racism, those most likely to experience distress are people who are already concerned about expressing prejudice. Accordingly, discussions of racism may benefit from mentioning ways to reduce prejudice. PubDate: 2023-12-01
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Abstract: Abstract Access to homeownership is central to both wealth and ethno-racial stratification. Previous research demonstrates ethno-racial inequality in homeownership such as unequal treatment, steering, and the type of mortgage products offered to both minorities and communities of color alike. However, it is unclear how differences in down payment levels shape ethno-racial disparities in mortgage credit access. This paper draws on annual data from the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act (HMDA) from 2018 to 2019 to assess ethno-racial disparities in mortgage outcomes across varying down payment levels. I demonstrate that black and Latino borrowers are more likely to obtain a high-cost loan and be denied a mortgage across varying down payment levels compared to white applicants. The results for Asians are mixed. These trends are particularly true when examining mortgage denials as black and Latino applicants with a down payment greater than 20% of the home value are just as likely to be denied a mortgage as white applicants with a down payment that is less than 5% of the home value. Asians with the highest down payment level perform similarly as whites with a below average down payment level. Implications for ethno-racial stratification are discussed. PubDate: 2023-12-01
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Abstract: Abstract Early life adversity has long been associated with the onset and course of criminal behavior and juvenile justice involvement. Nevertheless, there is a paucity of research on the differential experiences of early life trauma and trauma symptomology among justice involved youth of color who are ubiquitously overrepresented in the juvenile justice system (JJS). Conventional trauma instruments used in the JJS may yield limited cultural relevance or applicability to racially minoritized justice involved youth as they rarely capture concepts of race-based trauma. While research has explored the relative effects of racial trauma above and beyond other traumatic experiences among minoritized youth in the JJS, differential trauma experiences and differential effects between trauma and delinquency among racial groups have not been extensively explored. Conducting multivariate analysis of variance with appropriate post hoc tests and bivariate correlations, the results revealed significant mean differences between racial groups on experiences of early life trauma via conventional trauma instruments; white youth reported higher rates of trauma events including cumulative trauma, relative to black and Hispanic youth, but had similar rates of trauma symptoms relative to black youth. Furthermore, while there were no racial group differences on reports of delinquency, there were vastly different trauma-based risk correlates by racial group; white youth had several trauma indicators associated with delinquency, whereas black and Hispanic youth had no associations. Results suggest conventional trauma instruments have limited cultural and racial relevancy for minoritized justice involved youth. Implications are identified for intersectional youth participatory action approaches to instrument development centered on discovering raced-based traumatic stress among racially minoritized justice involved youth. PubDate: 2023-12-01
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Abstract: Abstract Researchers have investigated the race-crime congruency effect for approximately 30 years; however, extant research makes it difficult to draw conclusions about this effect due to varied operationalization, methodology, and statistical reporting. We conducted a systematic review operationalizing race-crime congruency as a crossover effect such that defendants receive harsher punishment when a crime is deemed typical of their race and less punitive punishments when a crime is deemed atypical of their race. The objective of this systematic review is to summarize the current state of the literature and provide recommendations for future research. To identify relevant studies, we searched four databases, 18 conference programs, and reference lists in identified articles. We identified 14 published and unpublished papers that examine a crossover effect of the race-crime congruency effect found in experimental research. We recommend (a) using designs capable of testing a crossover interaction (b) including dichotomous guilt as a primary dependent variable (c) pilot testing race-typical and -atypical crimes (d) identifying crimes that associate equally with target groups (e) utilizing manipulation checks to ensure appropriate comparisons across studies and (f) reporting detailed statistical information to allow future researchers to conduct meta-analyses on this topic. Overall, race-crime congruency literature has important implications for marginalized groups within the United States’ criminal justice system; therefore, researchers should work to appropriately ascertain the robustness of this effect. PubDate: 2023-12-01
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Abstract: Abstract Guided by social identity and intergroup theory, we tested how two facets of ethnic-racial identity—felt typicality (perceived similarity to other ingroup members) and ingroup ties (felt closeness to other ingroup members)—potentially buffer the negative effects of outgroup discrimination and ingroup marginalization on self-esteem. Participants included 407 Latinx (65%) and Black (35%) undergraduates (Mage = 24.72 years, 79% women, 21% men) who completed an online survey. Our analyses yielded three key findings. First, both outgroup discrimination and ingroup marginalization predicted lower self-esteem; however, this association was significantly stronger with ingroup marginalization than outgroup discrimination. Second, the association between ingroup marginalization and self-esteem was reduced when ethnic-racial identity variables were controlled. Felt ethnic-racial typicality additionally moderated the association between ingroup marginalization and self-esteem—whereby the negative association was stronger when individuals felt higher ethnic-racial typicality. Our findings expand understanding of the impact of marginalization and discrimination from those within and outside of one’s ethnic-racial group, respectively. We also discuss the differing roles of ethnic-racial identity when experiencing outgroup discrimination and ingroup marginalization. PubDate: 2023-12-01
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Abstract: Abstract System justification theory suggests that high-status group members endorsing status hierarchies will favor their ingroup and may show less positive outgroup attitudes. Understanding which variables influence these relationships is important. We explored whether trait mindfulness would decouple the relationship between racial-system justification, negative ethnic attitudes, and other-group orientation, among samples of White Americans. Studies 1 and 2 suggested that trait mindfulness moderated (i.e., decoupled) the negative influences of system justification on the outcome variables. In some circumstances, intergroup anxiety mediated the findings for those low and moderate in trait mindfulness, as compared to those with high trait mindfulness. Our findings support the predictions of system justification theory but reveal that trait mindfulness can decouple the relationship between system justification and outgroup attitudes. This suggests that trait mindfulness may best serve as a moderator that decouples pernicious relationships, as compared to having direct influences on prejudice. These findings are important, because understanding factors which reduce prejudice are relevant given its persistence in the United States. PubDate: 2023-12-01
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Abstract: Abstract Racial/ethnic minorities, especially people racialized as Black and Latino, face disadvantages at work. Our research reaffirms and adds insight into this disadvantage, showing that compared to people racialized as White, racial minorities experience limited internal mobility and as a result greater geographic instability. Using data from a longitudinal study of the careers of NCAA Division I assistant and associate head basketball coaches, we show first that these coaches are more likely to experience internal job mobility if they are White. We also consider what this means for race differences in geographic mobility, establishing that coaches who are White move shorter distances following a job change on average because they are more likely to experience internal occupational mobility. These findings highlight yet another way restricted work opportunity culminates to disadvantage racial minorities in this profession. PubDate: 2023-11-24
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Abstract: Abstract Recent scholarship has attributed Asian American socioeconomic attainment to the exceptional selectivity of Asian immigrants since 1965 while also characterizing the second generation as limited by a glass ceiling. Other scholars are critical of the hyper-selectivity thesis for minimizing the role of Asian-family commitment to education and exaggerating Asian disadvantage in the labor market. Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, I explore how two components of cultural capital (parental educational expectations and adolescent efforts at schoolwork) affect respondents’ high-school grade point average (GPA), their degree attainment by adulthood, and their incomes in adulthood. I find partial support for the expected mechanisms in the debate, identify GPA as a critical mediator between family background and racial disparities in adulthood, and show that academic performance (GPA) is a “bottleneck” for the relative advantages of the Asian second-generation in both education and the labor market, particularly for Chinese, Indian, Korean, and Vietnamese Americans. Exploratory analysis also suggests an important role for cross-racial social capital. My conclusion discusses the implications of my findings for advancing the hyper-selectivity debate and rethinking the racial status of Asian Americans in the sociology of race/ethnicity. If Asian Americans represent a “model” to other minorities, it may not only be for their commitment to education but also for their relative acceptance by Whites in the critically important socioeconomic domain. PubDate: 2023-11-10
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Abstract: Abstract Research documents positive associations between socioeconomic factors and children’s cognitive development. However, the benefits of socioeconomic advantage may not accrue similarly to all children. In this study, we explored whether the relation between socioeconomic factors and early child cognitive outcomes differs as a function of children’s racial/ethnic identity and family immigration status in a nationally representative sample of children (Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Birth Cohort). The associations of family income with cognitive outcomes were weaker for Black and Hispanic children with U.S. born parents compared with White children with U.S. born parents and Hispanic and Asian children in immigrant families. Associations between parental education and cognitive outcomes were weaker for Hispanic children in immigrant families compared to White and Hispanic children with U.S. born parents. Findings suggest that benefits of socioeconomic factors for early cognitive development are uneven across social identities in the earliest years of development and invite further exploration into the mechanisms underlying differential patterns. PubDate: 2023-11-08
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Abstract: Abstract Research shows that U.S. racial minority groups have lower levels of financial knowledge than whites, yet an explanation for the knowledge gap remains elusive. Financial knowledge measures are generally constructed by summing respondents’ correct answers on a series of factual items and collapsing incorrect answers and “don’t know” (DK) responses into a single category. However, studies demonstrate that DK responses and incorrect answers have different antecedents and may not reflect absence of knowledge in the same way, and racial minorities are more likely to choose DK responses. In addition, questions on commonly used knowledge tests ignore the underlying racialization of the current financial market regarding financial experience, which shapes financial knowledge. This study investigates the roles of financial experience and DK response in shaping the racial difference in financial knowledge. Based on multinomial logit models of data from the 2018 National Financial Capability Study, we find that racial minorities were more likely to provide both DK and incorrect responses than whites across financial knowledge questions. Ownership of a savings account, a home, and investment products is negatively associated with giving DK and incorrect responses. Findings suggest that the financial knowledge of racial minorities can be substantially higher than previous studies suggest. Levels of financial knowledge assessed by current measures are shaped by financial experiences that racial minorities are less likely to have. Findings imply that the content validity of financial knowledge measures is problematic, and financial knowledge based on these measures likely yields less return for racial minorities than whites. PubDate: 2023-10-25
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Abstract: Abstract Black women uniquely experience a myriad of intersecting oppressions along with racial discrimination that increases their vulnerability to trauma. Experiences of racial discrimination manifest as race-related stress, or worse an emotional wound, race-related trauma. Protective factors that facilitate coping for black women are resilience and social support. Under investigation were black women’s experiences of racial stress, specifically, perseverative cognition (PC) and anticipatory race-related stress (ARRS), and trauma symptoms. PC and ARRS derive from the Prolonged Activation and Anticipatory Race-Related Stress Scale. The moderating effects of resilience and social support were also examined. Data were collected from 216 black female students at a Historically Black College or University. The findings indicate (1) PC was associated with higher trauma symptoms (ß = 4.46; p < .001); (2) ARSS was positively associated with trauma symptoms (ß = 4.82; p < .001); (3) Social support (ß = − 2.04; p < .001) and resilience (ß = − 2.80; p < .05) moderated the association between ARRS and trauma symptoms such that the association between racial stress and trauma symptoms was stronger under the condition of low social support and resilience. Treatment must include culturally relevant interventions and capitalize on protective factors to facilitate healing for black women. PubDate: 2023-10-18
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Abstract: Abstract Recent theoretical arguments suggest that, in addition to ongoing, overt racial housing discrimination and unequal access to resources, multiple subtle housing search processes are racially stratified and contribute to persistent racial segregation. Yet, little prior research has examined these processes. The present paper helps to fill this gap by investigating the racialized differences in the subtle ways that individuals use online housing search tools and identify real estate agents to assist them through the housing search process. To do so, we rely on novel survey data collected by Redfin from 2647 housing consumers using multiple online platforms to search for housing in markets across the United States and examine racialized differences in the likelihood of homebuyers attempting various types of activities using online housing search tools, successfully using the online search tools, and methods of identifying real estate agents with whom to work. While the nature of the data preclude definitive conclusions, our findings point to significant racialized differences in attempting, and successfully completing, online activities across three different ‘types’ of online tool engagement—early search, neighborhood search, and housing unit—as well as in identifying real estate agents. After reviewing our results, we discuss the implications of these findings for persistent racial residential stratification, and directions for future research. PubDate: 2023-10-02
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Abstract: Abstract The presence of school-based law enforcement (SBLE) and school counselors is likely to shape how schools punish students. This study examines how schools’ addition or removal of both types of school staff shapes both out-of-school suspension rates and expulsion rates, with a particular focus on differences among white, black, and Hispanic students. It also examines how these relationships differ by school racial composition. Using the 2013–2014 and 2017–2018 waves of the Civil Rights Data Collection, (N = 81,933 schools), this study creates a two-wave panel data set to use a difference-in-differences approach to examine change over time. The results of a series of two-way fixed effects models indicated that changes in the presence of SBLE shaped exclusionary discipline rates—including racial disparities—in multiple, sometimes surprising ways, and that these effects were often strongest in schools with larger proportions of white students. Changes in the presence of school counselors had fewer and less consistent impacts. PubDate: 2023-09-04 DOI: 10.1007/s12552-023-09395-6
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Abstract: Abstract One of the difficulties in social research has been to disentangle the effects of race/ethnicity from social class. In two experimental studies with samples of both students and general population (total N = 416), we analyzed the effect of social class, ethnicity and their interaction on prejudice and discrimination using experimental methods. Social class (High vs. Low) and ethnic group (Roma vs. Non-Roma) were manipulated through a cover story. Study 1 showed a main effect of social class, not of ethnicity, on prejudice and discrimination. In Study 2 the effect of social class was replicated, and the interaction effect was also significant for all dependent variables. Results show that negative effects of social class are higher among Roma than non-Roma. Pooled analyses corroborated these findings. Social class is a predictive factor, especially in interaction with ethnicity and should be considered for predicting and reducing prejudiced attitudes and intergroup behaviors fostering inequality. PubDate: 2023-09-01 DOI: 10.1007/s12552-022-09368-1
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Abstract: Abstract Research suggests that juveniles are generally less positive in their attitudes toward the police than are adults. The current study re-examines juvenile perceptions of and experiences with the police following one city’s attempt to improve the police-community relationship. Using data collected from 842 ninth through twelfth grade public high school students, bivariate and multivariate analyses are used to assess the attitudes of juveniles toward the police and the factors that are determinants of these attitudes. While attitudes toward police performance of specific job functions improved after the city initiative, general attitudes toward the police were worse. Race and contact with the police remained consistent determinants of less positive attitudes. Attitudes of juveniles toward the police were found to be unfavorable across a number of dimensions and have actually decreased compared to findings in the same jurisdiction 15 years earlier. This is troubling for several reasons. First, the finding supports claims of prior research on juvenile perceptions of injustice during encounters with police. Second, attitude measures associated with distributive and procedural justice were not positive suggesting that juvenile compliance and cooperation with the police may not be forthcoming. Third, attitudes of youth are likely to persist for some time because of intergenerational transmission of these perceptions. PubDate: 2023-09-01 DOI: 10.1007/s12552-022-09375-2
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Abstract: Abstract The current studies examined whether the race and gender of a person under suspicion (Studies 1 and 2), as well as the race of the person who called the police (Study 2) influences perceptions of police conduct. Participants read a summary in which the police were called on individuals waiting in a coffee shop (Study 1; N = 133) or sleeping in their dorm common room (Study 2; N = 247). Suspect race (Indigenous vs. White) and gender (male vs. female) were varied in both studies. In Study 2, the race of the person who called the police also varied (Indigenous vs. White). Participants in Study 1 believed race influenced the call to police and the arrest when the suspect was Indigenous (vs. White). Additionally, in both studies, participants were more likely to think that gender influenced the call to police and the arrest when the suspect was described as male (vs. female). The current studies provide new insight regarding public perception of racialized police communication. PubDate: 2023-09-01 DOI: 10.1007/s12552-022-09363-6
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