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Abstract: Abstract In visual search tasks, responses to targets on one trial can influence responses on the next trial. Most typically, target repetition speeds response while switching to a different target slows response. Such “priming” effects have sometimes been given very significant roles in theories of search (e.g., Theeuwes, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 368, 1628, 2013). Most work on priming has involved “singleton” or “popout” tasks. In non-popout priming tasks, observers must often perform a task-switching operation because the guiding template for one target (e.g., a red vertical target in a conjunction task) is incompatible with efficient search for the other target (green horizontal, in this example). We examined priming in inefficient search where the priming feature (Color: Experiments 1–3, Shape: Experiments 4–5) was irrelevant to the task of finding a T among Ls. We wished to determine if finding a red T on one trial helped observers to be more efficient if the next T was also red. In all experiments, we found additive priming effects. The reaction time (RT) for the second trial was shorter if the color of the T was repeated. However, there was no interaction with set size. The slope of the RT × Set Size function was not shallower for runs of the same target color, compared to trials where the target color switched. We propose that priming might produce transient guidance of the earliest deployments of attention on the next trial or it might speed decisions about a selected target. Priming does not appear to guide attention over the entire search. PubDate: 2022-05-16
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Abstract: Abstract The sound-induced flash illusion (SIFI) occurs when a rapidly presented visual stimulus is accompanied by two auditory stimuli, creating the illusory percept of two visual stimuli. While much research has focused on how the temporal proximity of the audiovisual stimuli impacts susceptibility to the illusion, comparatively less research has focused on the impact of spatial manipulations. Here, we aimed to assess whether manipulating the eccentricity of visual flash stimuli altered the properties of the temporal binding window associated with the SIFI. Twenty participants were required to report whether they perceived one or two flashes that were concurrently presented with one or two beeps. Visual stimuli were presented at one of four different retinal eccentricities (2.5, 5, 7.5, or 10 degrees below fixation) and audiovisual stimuli were separated by one of eight stimulus-onset asynchronies. In keeping with previous findings, increasing stimulus-onset asynchrony between the auditory and visual stimuli led to a marked decrease in susceptibility to the illusion allowing us to estimate the width and amplitude of the temporal binding window. However, varying the eccentricity of the visual stimulus had no effect on either the width or the peak amplitude of the temporal binding window, with a similar pattern of results observed for both the “fission” and “fusion” variants of the illusion. Thus, spatial manipulations of the audiovisual stimuli used to elicit the SIFI appear to have a weaker effect on the integration of sensory signals than temporal manipulations, a finding which has implications for neuroanatomical models of multisensory integration. PubDate: 2022-05-13
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Abstract: Abstract In many real-life contexts, where objects are moving around, we are often required to allocate our attention unequally between targets or regions of different importance. However, typical multiple object tracking (MOT) tasks, primarily investigate equal attention allocation as the likelihood of each target being probed is the same. In two experiments, we investigated whether participants can allocate attention unequally across regions of the visual field, using a MOT task where two regions were probed with either a high and low or with equal priority. Experiment 1 showed that for high-priority regions, accuracy (for direction of heading judgments) improved, and participants had more frequent and longer fixations in that region compared with a low-priority region. Experiment 2 showed that eye movements were functional in that they slightly improved accuracy when participants could freely move their eyes compared with when they had to centrally fixate. Replicating Experiment 1, we found better tracking performance for high compared with low-priority regions, in both the free and fixed viewing conditions, but the benefit was greater for the free viewing condition. Although unequal attention allocation is possible without eye movements, eye movements seem to improve tracking ability, presumably by allowing participants to fixate more in the high-priority region and get a better, foveal view of the objects. These findings can help us better understand how observers in real-life settings (e.g., CCTV monitoring, driving) can use their limited attentional capacity to allocate their attention unequally in a demand-based manner across different tracking regions. PubDate: 2022-05-13
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Abstract: Abstract Recently, paradigms in the face recognition literature have been adopted to reveal holistic processing in word recognition. It is unknown, however, whether different measures of holistic word processing share similar underlying mechanisms, and whether fluent word reading relies on holistic word processing. We measured holistic processing effects in three paradigms (composite, configural sensitivity, part–whole) as well as in reading fluency (3DM task: reading aloud high- and low-frequency words and pseudowords). Bin scores were used to combine accuracy and response time variables in the quest for a more comprehensive, reliable, and valid measure of holistic processing. Weak correlations were found between the different holistic processing measures, with only a significant correlation between the configural sensitivity effect and part–whole effect (r = .32) and a trend of a positive correlation between the word composite effect and configural sensitivity effect (r = .21). Of the three holistic processing measures, only one (part–whole effect) correlated with a lexical access measure of 3DM (r = .23). We also performed a principal component analysis (PCA) of performance in the three lists of 3DM, with the second most probably reflecting lexical access processes. There was a tendency for a positive correlation between part–whole bin measure and Component 2 of PCA. We also found a positive correlation between composite aligned in accuracy and Component 2 of PCA. Our results show that different measures of holistic word processing reflect predominantly different mechanisms, and that differences among normal readers in word reading do not seem to depend highly on holistic processing. PubDate: 2022-05-12
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Please help us test our new pre-print finding feature by giving the pre-print link a rating. A 5 star rating indicates the linked pre-print has the exact same content as the published article.
Abstract: Abstract A shape-label matching task is commonly used to examine the self-advantage in motor reaction-time responses (the Self-Prioritization Effect; SPE). In the present study, auditory labels were introduced, and, for the first time, responses to unisensory auditory, unisensory visual, and multisensory object-label stimuli were compared across block-type (i.e., trials blocked by sensory modality type, and intermixed trials of unisensory and multisensory stimuli). Auditory stimulus intensity was presented at either 50 dB (Group 1) or 70 dB (Group 2). The participants in Group 2 also completed a multisensory detection task, making simple speeded motor responses to the shape and sound stimuli and their multisensory combinations. In the matching task, the SPE was diminished in intermixed trials, and in responses to the unisensory auditory stimuli as compared with the multisensory (visual shape+auditory label) stimuli. In contrast, the SPE did not differ in responses to the unisensory visual and multisensory (auditory object+visual label) stimuli. The matching task was associated with multisensory ‘costs’ rather than gains, but response times to self- versus stranger-associated stimuli were differentially affected by the type of multisensory stimulus (auditory object+visual label or visual shape+auditory label). The SPE was thus modulated both by block-type and the combination of object and label stimulus modalities. There was no SPE in the detection task. Taken together, these findings suggest that the SPE with unisensory and multisensory stimuli is modulated by both stimulus- and task-related parameters within the matching task. The SPE does not transfer to a significant motor speed gain when the self-associations are not task-relevant. PubDate: 2022-05-10
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Abstract: Location probability learning—the acquisition of an attentional bias toward locations that frequently contained a search target—shows many characteristics of a search habit. To what degree does it depend on oculomotor control, as might be expected if habit-like attention is grounded in eye movements' Here, we examined the impact of a spatially incompatible oculomotor signal on location probability learning (LPL). On each trial of a visual search task, participants first saccaded toward a unique C-shape, whose orientation determined whether participants should continue searching for a T target among L distractors. The C-shape often appeared in one, “C-rich” quadrant that differed from where the T was frequently located. Experiment 1 showed that participants acquired LPL toward the high-probability, “T-rich” quadrant, an effect that persisted in an unbiased testing phase. Participants were also faster finding the target in the vicinity of the C-shape, but this effect did not persist after the C-shape was removed. Experiment 2 found that the C-shape affected search only when it was task-relevant. Experiment 3 replicated and extended the findings of Experiment 1 using eye tracking. Thus, location probability learning is robust in the face of a spatially incompatible saccade, demonstrating partial independence between experience-guided attention and goal-driven oculomotor control. The findings are in line with the modular view of attention, which conceptualizes the search habit as a high-level process abstracted from eye movements. PubDate: 2022-05-10
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Abstract: Abstract In the real world, listeners seem to implicitly learn talkers’ vocal identities during interactions that prioritize attending to the content of talkers’ speech. In contrast, most laboratory experiments of talker identification employ training paradigms that require listeners to explicitly practice identifying voices. Here, we investigated whether listeners become familiar with talkers’ vocal identities during initial exposures that do not involve explicit talker identification. Participants were assigned to one of three exposure tasks, in which they heard identical stimuli but were differentially required to attend to the talkers’ vocal identity or to the verbal content of their speech: (1) matching the talker to a concurrent visual cue (talker-matching); (2) discriminating whether the talker was the same as the prior trial (talker 1-back); or (3) discriminating whether speech content matched the previous trial (verbal 1-back). All participants were then tested on their ability to learn to identify talkers from novel speech content. Critically, we manipulated whether the talkers during this post-test differed from those heard during training. Compared to learning to identify novel talkers, listeners were significantly more accurate learning to identify the talkers they had previously been exposed to in the talker-matching and verbal 1-back tasks, but not the talker 1-back task. The correlation between talker identification test performance and exposure task performance was also greater when the talkers were the same in both tasks. These results suggest that listeners learn talkers’ vocal identity implicitly during speech perception, even if they are not explicitly attending to the talkers’ identity. PubDate: 2022-05-09
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Abstract: Abstract The question of whether phonological information is integrated through the parafovea has remained unanswered particularly in Korean sentence reading. The current study used homophones with identical underlying phonological forms but with different orthography to examine phonological preview benefit effects in Korean. In an eye-tracking experiment using the boundary paradigm, target fixations were shorter (a) when the preview-target pairs were identical than when they were unrelated, (b) when the pairs were orthographically similar than when they were unrelated, and most importantly, (c) when the pairs were phonologically identical than when they were phonologically similar but different. These results indicate that underlying phonological information of a word, aside from orthographic information, is integrated through parafoveal preview during Korean sentence reading. PubDate: 2022-05-04
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Abstract: Abstract To successfully interact with objects in complex and crowded environments, we often perform visual search to detect or identify a relevant target (or targets) among distractors. Previous studies have reported a redundancy gain when two targets instead of one are presented in a simple target detection task. However, research is scant about the role of multiple targets in target discrimination tasks, especially in the context of visual search. Here, we address this question and investigate its underlying mechanisms in a pop-out search paradigm. In Experiment 1, we directly compared visual search performance for one or two targets for detection or discrimination tasks. We found that two targets led to a redundancy gain for detection, whereas it led to a redundancy cost for discrimination. To understand the basis for the redundancy cost observed in discrimination tasks for multiple targets, we further investigated the role of perceptual grouping (Experiment 2) and stimulus–response feature compatibility (Experiment 3). We determined that the strength of perceptual grouping among homogenous distractors was attenuated when two targets were present compared with one. We also found that response compatibility between two targets contributed more to the redundancy cost compared with perceptual compatibility. Taken together, our results show how pop-out search involving two targets is modulated by the level of feature processing, perceptual grouping, and compatibility of perceptual and response features. PubDate: 2022-05-03
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Abstract: Abstract The working memory Stroop task is to name the color of a rectangular patch with keypress while holding a color word in working memory. Previous studies using this variant of the Stroop task have shown that congruency between the color patch and the color word significantly affects both color naming and working memory, with the worsening of task performance when the color patch is semantically incongruent rather than congruent with the color word. However, it remains unclear with regard to cognitive mechanisms underlying such congruency effects in the working memory Stroop task. By including a control condition among the congruent and incongruent conditions in a working memory Stroop task, the present study showed that nearly all of the working memory Stroop effect can be facilitation, and that interference, if present, is markedly smaller than facilitation in this form of the Stroop effect. There was also a critical contrast between the working memory and classic Stroop effects in terms of facilitation and interference, with larger facilitation and smaller interference in the working memory Stroop effect than in the classic Stroop effect. Moreover, working memory for a color word can be either facilitated or interfered with by the perceptual judgment (color naming) of an interposed color patch during the retention interval, depending on whether the color patch is semantically congruent or incongruent with the color word. Together, these results suggest that both facilitation and interference mechanisms can contribute to the overall congruency effects in the working memory Stroop task. PubDate: 2022-05-02
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Abstract: Abstract In many applied single-point Yes/No signal-detection studies, the main interest is to evaluate the observer’s sensitivity, based on the observed rates of hits and false alarms. For example, Kostopoulou, Nurek, Cantarella et al. (2019, Medical Decision Making, 39, 21–31) presented general practitioners (GPs) with clinical vignettes of patients showing various cancer-related symptoms, and asked them to decide if urgent referral was required; the standard discrimination index d′ was calculated for each GP. An alternative conditional approach to statistical inference emphasizes explicitly the conditional nature of the inferences drawn, and argues on the basis of the response marginal (the number of “yes” responses) that was actually observed. It is closely related to, for example, Fisher’s exact test or the Rasch model in item response theory which have long been valuable and prominent in psychology. The conditional framework applied to single-point Yes/No detection studies is based on the noncentral hypergeometric sampling distribution and permits, for samples of any size, exact inference because it eliminates nuisance (i.e., bias) parameters by conditioning. We describe in detail how the conditional approach leads to conditional maximum likelihood sample estimates of sensitivity, and to exact confidence intervals for the underlying (log) odds ratio. We relate the conditional approach to classical (logistic) detection models also leading to analyses of the odds ratio, compare its statistical power to that of the unconditional approach, and conclude by discussing some of its pros and cons. PubDate: 2022-05-01
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Abstract: Abstract There is growing evidence that visual attention can be guided by selection history. One example of this is intertrial location priming, whereby attention is attracted to the target location from the previous trial. Most previous demonstrations of location priming have relied on manual response time effects whereby search is speeded when the target location repeats from the previous trial. However, these latency-based effects have recently been challenged as being due to response facilitation that occurs after the target has been found, rather than an attentional bias toward the previous target location. To resolve this, the current study used a probe paradigm to assess whether covert attention is biased to the previous-trial target location. On search trials, participants searched for a specific target shape amongst distractor shapes and made a speeded response to the location of a dot inside the target. On probe trials, letters briefly appeared at each search location and after a delay, participants were asked to report as many letters as possible. Probe report accuracy was used to assess the likelihood that a given location was attended. Three experiments indicated that probe report accuracy was greatly improved for letters at the previous-trial target location compared with baseline levels. Importantly, this occurred even when strong attentional guidance to the target was encouraged and even when a nontarget stimulus appeared at the primed location. Altogether, the results suggest that covert attention is strongly attracted to the previous target location during visual search. PubDate: 2022-05-01
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Abstract: Abstract Duñabeitia et al. (NeuroImage 54(4), 3004-3009, 2011) demonstrated that mirror letters induce the same electrophysiological response as canonical letters during the orthographic stage of visual word recognition. However, behavioral evidence in support of such an effect has remained scarce. We hypothesize that the poor reliability of the behavioral data could be due to the lack of sensitivity of the paradigms used in the literature. In Experiment 1 and Experiment 2, we compared conventional and sandwich-masked priming paradigms. Results showed that mirror primes (mirror) produced a significant priming effect on high-frequency words in the case of sandwich priming only. In Experiment 3, we used sandwich priming with a new material set to address a number of concerns regarding prime-target visual overlap. We obtained a graded facilitatory mirror-letter priming effect that acted additively with lexical frequency, thus supporting the idea that it originates in the fast automatic orthographic stage. Given that the graded priming effect provides little support for the idea of the complete preservation of mirror invariance for non-reversal letters, complementary explanations are explored. PubDate: 2022-05-01
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Abstract: Abstract Recent studies have demonstrated a novel compatibility (or correspondence) effect between physical stimulus size and horizontally aligned responses: Left-hand responses are shorter and more accurate to a small stimulus, compared to a large stimulus, whereas the opposite is true for right-hand responses. The present study investigated whether relative or absolute size is responsible for the effect. If relative size was important, a particular stimulus would elicit faster left-hand responses if the other stimuli in the set were larger, but the same stimulus would elicit a faster right-hand response if the other stimuli in the set were smaller. In terms of two-visual-systems theory, our study explores whether “vision for perception” (i.e., the ventral system) or “vision for action” (i.e., the dorsal system) dominates the processing of stimulus size in our task. In two experiments, participants performed a discrimination task in which they responded to stimulus color (Experiment 1) or to stimulus shape (Experiment 2) with their left/right hand. Stimulus size varied as an irrelevant stimulus feature, thus leading to corresponding (small-left; large-right) and non-corresponding (small-right; large-left) conditions. Moreover, a set of smaller stimuli and a set of larger stimuli, with both sets sharing an intermediately sized stimulus, were used in different conditions. The consistently significant two-way interaction between stimulus size and response location demonstrated the presence of the correspondence effect. The three-way interaction between stimulus size, response location, and stimulus set, however, was never significant. The results suggest that participants are inadvertently classifying stimuli according to relative size in a context-specific manner. PubDate: 2022-04-22
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Abstract: Abstract Semantic information about objects, events, and scenes influences how humans perceive, interact with, and navigate the world. The semantic information about any object or event can be highly complex and frequently draws on multiple sensory modalities, which makes it difficult to quantify. Past studies have primarily relied on either a simplified binary classification of semantic relatedness based on category or on algorithmic values based on text corpora rather than human perceptual experience and judgement. With the aim to further accelerate research into multisensory semantics, we created a constrained audiovisual stimulus set and derived similarity ratings between items within three categories (animals, instruments, household items). A set of 140 participants provided similarity judgments between sounds and images. Participants either heard a sound (e.g., a meow) and judged which of two pictures of objects (e.g., a picture of a dog and a duck) it was more similar to, or saw a picture (e.g., a picture of a duck) and selected which of two sounds it was more similar to (e.g., a bark or a meow). Judgements were then used to calculate similarity values of any given cross-modal pair. An additional 140 participants provided word judgement to calculate similarity of word-word pairs. The derived and reported similarity judgements reflect a range of semantic similarities across three categories and items, and highlight similarities and differences among similarity judgments between modalities. We make the derived similarity values available in a database format to the research community to be used as a measure of semantic relatedness in cognitive psychology experiments, enabling more robust studies of semantics in audiovisual environments. PubDate: 2022-04-21
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Abstract: Abstract Gaze-triggered attention changes have been found in individuals with high autistic traits in the nonclinical population. However, gaze cues used in previous studies imply not only sociality of gaze but also the motion of gaze. To exclude the influence of motion, we manipulated the cue sociality by setting dot cues with similar motion characteristics as gaze cues to explore the underlying reasons of gaze-triggered attention changes in individuals with high autistic traits. We used a cueing paradigm within a visual matching task and recorded individuals’ eye movements. Both the RT and eye movement of probe interface showed the benefit from gaze of the low autistic trait group was larger than that from dot and was larger than that of the high autistic trait group. While the high autistic trait group show similar benefit between gaze and dot. Eye movement results showed the dynamic changes of validity effect in two groups. The interaction between autistic traits and cue sociality was not significant within the 500 ms of cue presentation, marginally significant within 500–1,000 ms after cue presentation, but significant after 1,000 ms of cue presentation. The results demonstrated that the changes of gaze-triggered attention in individuals with high autistic traits was mainly caused by the sociality of gaze in the relative late stage. PubDate: 2022-04-18
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Abstract: Abstract The reported time of intent (W) and the reported time of action (M) have been used as indices of consciousness during simple voluntary actions. However, it is unclear whether W is exclusively inferred from M. Past studies have suggested that W is inferred from M by demonstrating that W varies when judged in conjunction with M. The current study offers counterevidence by showing that W is independent of M under some circumstances related to temporal binding. Participants performed a voluntary keypress that elicited a tone (briefly delayed at 5 and 60 ms). Subsequently, they reported W or M and indicated the confidence of their report. Binding strength was measured as the extent to which the W and M reports gravitated toward the time of the tone. Moreover, the binding strength was evaluated in conjunction with time course and knowledge to assess whether the strength increases due to repeated exposure or weakens if informed of the tone delay manipulation, respectively. We observed that the binding strength associated with W increased over time, and being informed of the tone manipulation did not affect W’s binding behaviors. In contrast, M’s binding behaviors did not change over time but being informed of the tone manipulation may release M from binding. The corresponding confidence ratings associated with W were uniform whereas those associated with M fluctuated over time. Collectively, the results suggest that binding behaviors associated with W and M differ, and that W is not simply derived from M. PubDate: 2022-04-14
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Abstract: Abstract It is well known that attentional selection is sensitive to the regularities presented in the display. In the current study we employed the additional singleton paradigm and systematically manipulated the probability that the target would be presented in one particular location within the display (probabilities of 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, and 90%). The results showed the higher the target probability, the larger the performance benefit for high- relative to low-probability locations both when a distractor was present and when it was absent. We also showed that when the difference between high- and low-probability conditions was relatively small (30%) participants were not able to learn the contingencies. The distractor presented at a high-probability target location caused more interference than when presented at a low-probability target location. Overall, the results suggest that attentional biases are optimized to the regularities presented in the display tracking the experienced probabilities of the locations that were most likely to contain a target. We argue that this effect is not strategic in nature nor the result of repetition priming. Instead, we assume that through statistical learning the weights within the spatial priority map are adjusted optimally, generating the efficient selection priorities. PubDate: 2022-04-14
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Abstract: Abstract A warning signal preceding an imperative stimulus by a certain foreperiod can accelerate responses (foreperiod effect). When foreperiod is varied within a block, the foreperiod effect on reaction time (RT) is modulated by both the current and the prior foreperiods. Using a non-aging foreperiod distribution in a simple-reaction task, Capizzi et al. (Cognition, 134, 39-49, 2015) found equal sequential effects for different foreperiods, which they credited to repetition priming. The multiple-trace theory of Los et al. (Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 1058, 2014) attributes the slope of the foreperiod-RT function to the foreperiod distribution. We conducted three experiments that examined these predicted relations. Experiment 1 tested Capizzi et al.’s prediction in a choice-reaction task and found an increasing foreperiod-RT function but a larger sequential effect at the shorter foreperiod. Experiment 2 used two distinct short foreperiods with the same foreperiod distribution and found a decreasing foreperiod-RT function. By increasing the difference between the foreperiods used in Experiment 2, Experiment 3 yielded a larger sequential effect overall. The experiments provide evidence that, with a non-aging foreperiod distribution, the variable-foreperiod paradigm yields unequal sequential-effect sizes at the different foreperiods, consistent with the multiple-trace theory but contrary to Capizzi et al.’s repetition-priming account. The foreperiod-RT functions are similar to those of the fixed-foreperiod paradigm, which is not predicted by the multiple trace theory. PubDate: 2022-04-07
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