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Abstract: Abstract Despite the fact that certain individuals elicit intense emotions of aversion or admiration, their influence is undeniable. Gandhi is a prime example of this proposition, as he captivates intellectuals and global leaders. Gandhi is renowned for his advocacy for Swaraj and Satyagraha, his dedication to truth and nonviolence, and his regard for all religions. Following the same sentiment, the book Gandhi and the Idea of Swaraj (Jahanbegloo, 2023), currently under review, is an exceptional starting point for individuals interested in researching Gandhi’s philosophy and the concept of Swaraj. This critical analysis evaluates the author’s narrative in this book, throws light on the misconceptions about Gandhi, and highlights the book’s significance in understanding Gandhi’s philosophy and its contemporary relevance. PubDate: 2024-08-02 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00183-y
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Abstract: Abstract Writing in the late nineteenth century Vivekananda saw how education was a tool of mass control. In fact the creation of the “inferior” native brought to birth the politics of the White man’s burden of civilizing the “barbaric” East. Vivekananda harshly criticizes this imagery of the Oriental. He sought to take back charge by affirming the presence of the divine self in all. Renowned post-colonial thinkers like Franz Fanon, and Edward Said have written extensively about this type of cultural and psychological control over the colonized in the 1960s. This paper looks specifically at Vivekananda’s ideas on education, to bring out the nuances in his philosophy and politics. Vivekananda criticized Western education, calling it negative because it only taught the Indian masses to feel ashamed of their ancestors, their religion, and their culture. This critique makes Vivekananda a pioneering cultural critic of colonial domination. Vivekananda however was not totally dismissive of the role of education in building a strong nation. He lauded the West for educating their people in a way that made them inventors and great thinkers, and where the masses enjoyed material comforts. For him, education was a spiritual training of the mind, such that it would become the perfect tool for application in practical life through invention and industry. According to Vivekananda, the remedy to the ills of Indian society lay in practical Vedanta as the universalizing aspect of all Hindu sects. He sought to impart an education that would be a blend of the best practices of the East and the West. The scientific knowledge of the West with the spiritual practice of the East would build a nation of strong-willed, self-confident citizens. Vivekananda’s criticism of the Western education system leads the way to post-colonial thought of the mid-twentieth century across the globe. PubDate: 2024-08-01 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00180-1
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Abstract: Abstract Animals in Hinduism have been portrayed as vāhanas, or divine mounts, of various Gods and Goddesses within Hindu texts. Additionally, the practice of worshipping animals before the temple deities underscores their symbolic importance and ritualistic significance in Hindu worship. This creates a scope to understand communication beyond human realm within the rich tapestry of Hindu mythology. Throughout a Hindu’s life, animals play integral roles, whether through belief systems, ritual observances, or moral teachings derived from sacred texts. This ongoing interaction between humans and animals within Hinduism underscores a network of extrapersonal communication, shaping cultural practices and religious beliefs within the Hindu tradition. Extrapersonal communication is one of the forms of communication where the interaction takes place between human and non-human entities, mainly animals. This paper delves into the captivating world of Hindu mythology and its enigmatic portrayal of the concept of human-animal communication by tracing its roots from ancient times to the present. PubDate: 2024-07-22 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00181-0
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Abstract: Abstract A common misconception of yoga is that it consists primarily of contorted postures and physical fitness. Rarely does one think of rituals as yoga practice (Sherma 2025), far less of chanting a ritual text such as the Devī Mahātmyam (henceforth DM) as a yogic text that offers liberation. While traditional commentators such as Bhāskararāya Makhin (1768c) and Nāgoji Bhaṭṭa (1688–1755) debate the ontological nature of the world (jagat) as either real (satkāryavāda) or illusory (vivarta), they do not mention rituals or yoga in their commentaries. On the other hand, present-day teachers go beyond traditional understandings of the text, providing interpretations that align with what I argue is a yogic understanding of the text, yet rituals are left out. In this paper, I contend that within the DM is a distinct manifestation of a mānasika (mental) psychophysiological Śākta Yogic framework that combines the visual, acoustic, olfactory, and tactile domains in ritual. First, I show how this form of Śākta Yoga can be uncovered by understanding the allegorical significance of specific Sanskrit terms such as madhu, kaiṭabha śumbha, niśumbha, caṇḍa-muṇḍa, raktabīja, mahiṣāsura, suratha, samādhi, and medhās. Then I show how the DM prescribes rituals such as chanting, offering flowers, gifts, incense, and perfume as yogic means to enlightenment. PubDate: 2024-07-17 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00179-8
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Abstract: Abstract ‘India that is Bharat’ as stated in the Indian Constitution is ‘the land of the Dharma and the Shastra’ according to Sri Aurobindo (SA) and is assuming an important position on the world stage as she transitions from being a developing country to a global superpower on politico-economic fronts, spear-heading a renaissance seventy-five years after independence in an attempt to rediscover and express the spirit of her nation, her svadharma. The concept of dharma has been a consistent fundamental pillar of Indian culture, and SA in his seminal work, The Renaissance in India and Other Essays on Indian Culture (1997), refers to India’s relentless quest for dharma defined as the innate nature/law behind every action which she tries to apply onto the outer structures and forms of life, creating in the process a perfect synchronisation of both the inner microcosm and the outer macrocosm (Aurobindo, 1997d, p. 9). The term dharma, though a two lettered Sanskrit word, has accommodated a vast array of meanings in different socio-cultural contexts which despite their diverse connotations reflect the predominant underlying meaning as given by Sri Aurobindo. This article, based on the book mentioned above, seeks to present the concept of dharma in the light of his writings, to demonstrate why and how it plays such a pivotal role in the development and sustenance of Indian civilisation and culture and serves as its distinctive feature. PubDate: 2024-07-16 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00176-x
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Abstract: Abstract No oppressive ideologies, such as racism, sexism, and imperialism, disappear easily; they require strong antitheses from external forces or through self-reflection. Embracing this premise, this paper explores anti-colonial solidarity in light of the reflective philosophy of Swaraj, emphasizing the importance of reflective ideas over brute force and discarding the assumption that violence is necessary for change. To accomplish this task, we examine into the profound historical and philosophical underpinnings of Swaraj (self-governance) as a potent reflective strength of anti-colonial cohesion within the framework and expressions of selected modern Indian philosophers. To be precise, this paper aims to enhance comprehension of the inclusive and normative significance of Swaraj in the anti-colonial and post-colonial struggle for liberation, pacifism, and solidarity. PubDate: 2024-07-10 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00178-9
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Abstract: Abstract The Ṣaṣṭhī vow is notably well-liked in Bengal. The well-being of the children and the family are the reasons behind the Ṣaṣṭhī vow. The goddess Ṣaṣṭhī is believed to be the defender and provider of children. Therefore, the main objective of the Ṣaṣṭhī vow is to improve the overall well-being of a child, which is expressed differently in various ways through the different Ṣaṣṭhī vows observed during the twelve Bengali months. Mothers observe the Ṣaṣṭhī vow, sometimes to shield the child from dust, to protect the child from premature death, to enhance the child’s life or wealth, and sometimes for the child’s healthy body. In addition to mothers of human new-borns, mothers of shepherd boys also observe the Ṣaṣṭhī, hoping that their offspring and the herds would be safe in the field. Not only do expectant mothers observe the Ṣaṣṭhī vow with a conscience in the hopes of bearing children (mostly sons), but also women who struggle with infertility. Women who give birth to only one child in life or who give birth to dead children likewise observe the Ṣaṣṭhī vow for the same reason. PubDate: 2024-07-01 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00173-0
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Abstract: Abstract Music in the Uttaramandrā-gāna or Gāthā-gāna is an integral part of the Aśvamedha rite. In the rite, the king transferred authority to a priest for a year, and we propose that to help him deal with the resultant psychological stress, two musicians sang valorous and uplifting songs to the accompaniment of vīṇā. Thus, Uttaramandrā worked as a music therapy, and using this as the basis, we present an outline of a fourfold therapeutic model with reference to the Rasa theory of Indian aesthetics, Ayurvedic principles, and ancient accounts of musicology. PubDate: 2024-06-27 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00175-y
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Abstract: In his autobiography The Space within the Heart (1970), the writer Aubrey Menen shares the experiment in self-inquiry he conducted in the 1960s in the Piazza Farnese in Rome. Relying on the reading of two Upaniṣads, he decided to retreat to a room and not abandon the experiment until he had achieved the experience of his true self, the ātman. Employing only intellectual analysis, Menen distances himself, one by one, from all the narratives that make up his empirical identity. In this essay, I propose to interpret his experiment from classical Sāṃkhya philosophy, reading it as a contemporary practice of tattva-abhyāsa that proceeds through a methodic disenchantment and entails a cognitive and emotional nakedness that might be interpreted as the nakedness of prakṛti. This case study raises questions about the application of Sāṃkhya philosophy in contexts other than renunciation and outside of any tradition, as well as on the role that emotions play in the process of the negation (pratiṣedha) of tattva-s, for the latter are not abstract entities, but shape our various empirical identities through emotional knots that the seeker will have to undo in the exercise of coming to affirm their identity as puruṣa. PubDate: 2024-06-25 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00174-z
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Abstract: Abstract Kālidāsa (4th – fifth century CE) has always been known for his exquisite poetic style and a deep sense of natural imageries. His works have been celebrated and extensively talked about; however, only a few scholars have embarked upon the journey to talk about the significance of ideas and the ideal world he represents. Kāvyas have been stigmatized as a source of history for a very long time, but historical perspectives have changed a lot over the past few decades. Kāvyas are now seen as one of the vital sources of history that can help historians to understand the emotional, social, cultural, and psychological aspects of the past. The present paper attempts to use kāvya as a source to explore some socio-psychological themes, which are hardly delineated in normative texts or inscriptions. The paper charts the playing of binaries in Kālidāsa’s Abhijῆānaśākuntala in the domains of kingship, women, love, and asceticism, among other areas. The present effort has been to capture their changing forms in all their complexities, and concurrent playing out in the text. It will also try to understand the worldview of Kālidāsa which seeks balance between kāma and tapas. PubDate: 2024-06-25 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00177-w
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Abstract: Abstract This article explores how a Tibetan Great Perfection (rdzogs chen) scripture uses the buddha couple (yab yum) as an interpretive structure that illuminates doctrines of non-duality, uniting pairs of concepts such as emptiness and gnosis, male and female, individual and cosmos. The focus of this research is an influential fourteenth century esoteric Buddhist scripture known as The Seminal Heart of the Ḍākinī (mkha’ ‘gro snying thig). There are multiple tropes of non-duality espoused in this scripture, yet the present research explores those discourses in their ontological, aesthetic, and transcorporeal functions while also addressing the non-dual yab yum’s role promoting female inclusion in the fourteenth century post-tantric literature. This article also includes a discussion of the female centric yab yum figures presented by the scripture, underscoring that yab yum does not have a singular meaning; in Great Perfection literature, it is deployed to illustrate multiple paradigms. PubDate: 2024-05-17 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00168-x
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Abstract: Abstract In this article, I call attention to the Yogavāsiṣṭha’s depiction of Rāma’s existential crisis and Vasiṣṭha’s various methods for resolving it. However, I illuminate this crisis and Rāma’s lengthy monologue by turning to an altogether different frame of reference: Albert Camus’s philosophy of the absurd as developed in his absurd-oriented works, from The Myth of Sisyphus to The Rebel. Arguing that Rāma’s existential crisis is strongly reminiscent of Camus’s awakening to life’s absurdity, and that his monologue may be considered among the most successful meditations on this predicament, I examine not only Rāma’s quandary but also what the Yogavāsiṣṭha deems the ultimate response to it. In this way, I throw into sharp relief two contrasting responses to the absurd condition in human life that effectively challenge one another. Considering some of the Indian classical works, such as the Yogavāsiṣṭha, in this light suggests that they too acknowledge the absurd as their starting point and, at least to a certain extent, develop doctrines that aid their practitioners in facing it. Nevertheless, the Yogavāsiṣṭha also enables us to develop our thinking about absurdity and expand the discussion of constructive responses to the reality of the absurd. PubDate: 2024-05-02 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00171-2
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Abstract: Abstract This research brings to light a paradoxical phenomenon of mummification and veneration of “whole-body relic” of the ascetic whose remains are enshrined in a vṛndāvana. The term vṛndāvana is normally attributed to the garden where Krsna and the gopis danced in eternal bliss. However, the relic of the ascetic head of a sectarian monastery is termed as vṛndāvana as well. There are numerous relic memorials in the sectarian Vedānta Vaisnava Dvaita monastery and its branches, where it is worshipped particularly in the state of Karnataka. This paper is an investigation into the rationale for the naming of the whole-body relic memorial as vṛndāvana. Such an attribution in term to a memorial and icon of an ascetic head and a transformation of its meaning is a conundrum. I argue that the rationale for such an adoption lies in the geographical, mythological, metaphysical, and philosophical connections between Krsna’s vṛndāvana and that of the ascetic. The sources that I have used in order to comprehend the traditional concepts and historical context include ancient Pūraṇas, archeological and artistic evidence, bhakti poetry, and discussions with living ascetics. This multidisciplinary exploration reveals the inventive genius of Dvaita monasteries and the sacred interchangeable concept-status and sacredness, dead and living between the ascetic and God. PubDate: 2024-04-02 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00166-z
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Abstract: Abstract This comparative theological article explores Meher Baba’s written Vedāntic teaching he once called “the yoga of ‘you go’” within a cosmological scheme he named “The Divine Theme,” which features in his books God Speaks and The Nothing and the Everything. Following his Vedāntic master, Upasni Maharaj and Sri Rāmakṛṣṇa, Meher Baba innovated on what scholars call the Yoga Advaita traditions. The important features of these lineages that impact his version are mental annihilation or manonāśa and the destruction of impressions or vāsanākṣaya (what he called “unwinding saṃskāras”) in order to liberate the soul while living in a body or jīvanmukti. Further, I map the total arc of Meher Baba’s work and how it fits historically within the Yoga Advaita lineages as they developed from the tenth century CE to the present. There are two basic sides to his work: his written teaching, which consolidates what one commentator calls “the ascendant path of return” to the nondual Self, and his active ministry, which I can only introduce here, which charts new territory for the future in what this commentator calls “the descendant path” of God-realization. I also constructively explore the ways that in The Nothing and the Everything the story of Gaṇeśa’s decapitation and recapitation is used to express, in narrative form, the philosophical treatment in God Speaks. In terms of salvation, Meher Baba’s teaching yields a theology of religious diversity I call “exhaustivism.” This refers to an “exhaustive” scope of learning literally all there is to learn in creation as each form in creation, including every kind of religious possibility in the human phase of reincarnation, a use of energy in each stage of the cosmic growth process that is “exhausting,” and finally, it refers to a difficult final stage of return to the divine that is marked by safely disposing of the saṃskāric “exhaust” generated in this evolution. Lastly, I offer some topics for further study in his Divine Theme that include the nature of human life and death, as well as the role of religions, God-realized masters or “Man-Gods,” and Meher Baba himself as the “God-Man” or Avatāra. PubDate: 2024-03-04 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-024-00159-y
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Abstract: Abstract Even a full realization of the absence of permanent self, a core teaching of Buddhism, does not stop the process by which a subject is imputed and then moves to apprehend objects. Not only is the nature of perception dualistic, the way objects are conceptualized relies on a further round of dualistic discrimination. A key role in the setting up of mutually exclusive categories, such as inner and outer, defilement and purification, and nirvāna and saṃsāra, that underlie conventional perception is played by language. The Teaching of Vimalakīrti aspires to eliminate this illness of misperception by altering the way language is used. Rich in paradox, this early Mahāyāna text deploys the concept of non-duality to offset the mind’s dichotomizing tendencies, testing the limits of both language and perception in the process. While the importance of non-duality for Mahāyāna and its prominence in the Vimalakīrti have been duly noted by numerous scholars and dharma teachers, I have not come across a study that would scrutinize the contexts in which the term first crops up in this sūtra or that would categorize the thirty-two ways of transcending duality suggested in its culminating eighth chapter. Going quotation by quotation, I provide a close reading of relevant passages and at the end break them down into three types. In the process, I also show that Vimalakīrti’s most effective way of countering duality is based on the idea of sameness, or equality, of things which poses certain ethical questions. Finally, my textual analysis leads me to challenge the view prevalent in scholarship on non-duality which takes the term to denote—even in regard to this text—a higher metaphysical reality. PubDate: 2023-12-05 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-023-00155-8
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Abstract: Abstract Starting from the allegation of the Pure Land tradition “as a deviant form of Buddhism,” the paper looks at non-dualist and dualist features in the teachings of the Japanese medieval Pure Land master Shinran Shōnin (1173–1263). It is suggested that Shinran should be understood within the Mahāyāna framework of the two truths or realities (satyadvaya). Shinran retains both perspectives in a paradoxical way implicating that non-dualism needs to be realized in a spiritual practice with strong dualist aspects. Non-dual ultimate reality manifests itself within conventional reality as the all-embracing compassionate “other-power” (tariki) that evokes an existential attitude of radical entrusting (shinjin) thereby evoking a liberative transformation “naturally” (jinen). PubDate: 2023-11-03 DOI: 10.1007/s42240-023-00153-w
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