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Batteries
Number of Followers: 10  Open Access journalISSN (Print) 2313-0105 Published by MDPI  [258 journals]
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- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 296: Anion Intercalation/De-Intercalation
Mechanism Enabling High Energy and Power Densities of Lithium-Ion
Capacitors
Authors: Yang Zhang, Junquan Lao, Ping Xiao
First page: 296
Abstract: The growing demands for electrochemical energy storage systems is driving the exploration of novel devices, with lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) emerging as a promising strategy to achieve both high energy density and fast charge capability. However, the low capacitance of commercial activated carbon (AC) cathode based on anion absorption/desorption limits LIC applications. Herein, commercial graphite is proposed as the cathode to construct an innovative AC (−)//graphite (+) system. The graphite cathode functions as anion hosting, allowing reversible intercalation/de-intercalation of anions into/from its interlayers. The as-designed AC (−)//graphite (+) full cell achieves stable cycling with 90.6% capacity retention after 200 cycles at 0.1 A g−1 and a prolonged lifespan with 87.5% capacity retention after 5000 cycles at 0.5 A g−1 with the upper cut-off voltage of 5.0 V, yielding a high average Coulombic efficiency (CE) of 99.3%. Moreover, the full cell exhibits a high energy density (>200 Wh kg−1) and power density of 7.7 kW kg−1 (calculated based on active mass in both electrodes). These performances exceed most LICs based on anions absorption/desorption on the surface of AC cathodes. This work explores an effective electrode revolution with the assistance of anion intercalation/de-intercalation chemistry for developing novel LICs with high energy and power densities.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-23
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10090296
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 9 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 297: Hardware Implementation of Hybrid Data
Driven-PI Control Scheme for Resilient Operation of Standalone DC
Microgrid
Authors: Ahmed Aghmadi, Ola Ali, S. M. Sajjad Hossain Rafin, Rawan A. Taha, Ahmed M. Ibrahim, Osama A. Mohammed
First page: 297
Abstract: The control of energy storage systems (ESSs) within autonomous microgrids (MGs) is critical for ensuring stable and efficient operation, especially when incorporating renewable energy resources (RESs) such as photovoltaic (PV) systems. This paper addresses managing a standalone DC microgrid that combines PV generation and a battery energy storage system (BESS). We propose a hybrid control strategy that combines a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) with Proportional-Integral (PI) controllers to improve the performance of the bidirectional converter that connects the BESS to the microgrid. The RNN processes the voltage error and derivative into a reference current, which a PI controller refines to determine the best duty cycle for the converter’s switches. This hybrid control scheme provides superior adaptability and performance in various load conditions, including pulsed power load (PPL) demands. Simulation results show that the proposed control method exceeds traditional PI-PI control algorithms, particularly in improving the transient stability of the DC bus voltage and optimizing BESS performance. We conducted extensive hardware experiments to verify the robustness and effectiveness of the developed control algorithm. The experimental results confirmed the superior performance of the hybrid RNN-PI control scheme, demonstrating its ability to maintain system stability and efficiency across a wide range of real-world scenarios. This experimental validation reflects the reliability and effectiveness of the proposed control strategy in improving microgrid operations.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-23
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10090297
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 9 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 298: Investigation on Thermal Runaway Hazards of
Cylindrical and Pouch Lithium-Ion Batteries under Low Pressure of Cruise
Altitude for Civil Aircraft
Authors: Qiang Sun, Hangxin Liu, Zhi Wang, Yawei Meng, Chun Xu, Yanxing Wen, Qiyao Wu
First page: 298
Abstract: Thermal runaway characteristics and hazards of lithium-ion batteries under low ambient pressure in-flight conditions are studied in a dynamic pressure chamber. The influence of ambient pressures (95 kPa and 20 kPa) and packaging forms (cylindrical and pouch commercial batteries) were especially investigated. The results show that the values of heat release, temperature, and CO2 concentration decrease with the reduction in pressure from 95 kPa to 20 kPa, while the total hydrocarbon and CO increase. Without violent fire, explosion, and huge jet flames, the thermal hazards of TR fire under 20 kPa are lower, but the amount of toxic/flammable gas emissions increases greatly. The amount of CO and hydrocarbons varies inversely with the thermal hazards of fire. Under low-pressure environments of cruise altitude, the thermal hazards of TR fire for pouch cells and the toxic/potentially explosive hazards of gas emissions of cylindrical cells need more attention. The performance of TR hazards for two packaging types of battery is also different. Pouch cells have higher thermal hazards of fire and lower combustible/toxic emitted gases than cylindrical cells. The thermal runaway intensity of individual cells decreases under lower ambient pressure, but the burning intensity increases dramatically when thermal runaway occurs in a battery pack. The open time of a safety valve (rupture of the bag) is shortened, but the trigger time for a thermal runaway varies for different formats of batteries under 20 kPa. Those results may be helpful for the safety warning and hazard protection design of Li batteries under low-pressure conditions.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-24
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10090298
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 9 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 299: Automated Identification of Cylindrical
Cells for Enhanced State of Health Assessment in Lithium-Ion Battery Reuse
Authors: Alejandro H. de la Iglesia, Fernando Lobato Alejano, Daniel H. de la Iglesia, Carlos Chinchilla Corbacho, Alfonso J. López Rivero
First page: 299
Abstract: Lithium-ion batteries are pervasive in contemporary life, providing power for a vast array of devices, including smartphones and electric vehicles. With the projected sale of millions of electric vehicles globally by 2022 and over a million electric vehicles in Europe alone in the first quarter of 2023, the necessity of securing a sustainable supply of lithium-ion batteries has reached a critical point. As the demand for electric vehicles and renewable energy storage (ESS) systems increases, so too does the necessity to address the shortage of lithium batteries and implement effective recycling and recovery practices. A considerable number of electric vehicle batteries will reach the end of their useful life in the near future, resulting in a significant increase in the number of used batteries. It is of paramount importance to accurately identify the manufacturer and model of cylindrical batteries to ascertain their State of Health (SoH) and guarantee their efficient reuse. This study focuses on the automation of the identification of cylindrical cells through optical character recognition (OCR) and the analysis of the external color of the cell and the anode morphology based on computer vision techniques. This is a novel work in the current limited literature, which aims to bridge the gap between industrialized lithium-ion cell recovery processes and an automated SoH calculation. Accurate battery identification optimizes battery reuse, reduces manufacturing costs and mitigates environmental impact. The results of the work are promising, achieving 90% accuracy in the identification of 18,650 cylindrical cells.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-24
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10090299
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 9 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 300: Design and Implementation of a
Non-Destructive AC Heating System for Lithium-Ion Battery Modules
Authors: Qian Xu, Xueyuan Wang, Wenjun Fan, Xuezhe Wei, Haifeng Dai
First page: 300
Abstract: The electrification of transportation is experiencing rapid development. Electric bicycles (e-bikes) are commonly employed as convenient modes of transportation. Thanks to the advantages of long life and high energy density, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used in e-bikes. In certain business models, e-bikes can utilize rental LIBs, which are centrally managed at charging stations. The low-temperature charging and discharging performance of the LIB system poses a significant challenge during usage. Among various heating methods, alternating current (AC) heating has garnered attention due to its high efficiency and has been applied to quickly warm up the LIB system. To address this issue, an AC heating model was established to determine the appropriate frequency and magnitude of the current, and a prototype AC heating system for the LIB modules used in e-bikes was designed. A full-bridge topology system model was established, and an experimental platform was constructed to test the effectiveness of the proposed AC heating topology and thermoelectric model under different AC heating frequencies and currents. The results show that the proposed AC heating system can heat an 18650 battery module within 20 min. Under an ambient temperature of −20 °C, using a 10 A, a 100 Hz excitation current achieves a heating rate of 1.3 °C per minute, with minimum power losses. The prototype also has a fast response time of only 70 ms. Finally, the strategies of LIB heating and insulation are proposed for the scenario of a battery swapping station. This research holds great significance in resolving the problem of low-temperature heating for e-bikes in cold regions.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-24
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10090300
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 9 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 301: Characterization of Lithium-Ion Battery
Fire Emissions—Part 1: Chemical Composition of Fine Particles
(PM2.5)
Authors: Matthew Claassen, Bjoern Bingham, Judith C. Chow, John G. Watson, Yan Wang, Xiaoliang Wang
First page: 301
Abstract: Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) pose a safety risk due to their high specific energy density and toxic ingredients. Fire caused by LIB thermal runaway (TR) can be catastrophic within enclosed spaces where emission ventilation or occupant evacuation is challenging or impossible. The fine smoke particles (PM2.5) produced during a fire can deposit in deep parts of the lung and trigger various adverse health effects. This study characterizes the chemical composition of PM2.5 released from TR-driven combustion of cylindrical lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and pouch-style lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) LIB cells. Emissions from cell venting and flaming combustion were measured in real time and captured by filter assemblies for subsequent analyses of organic and elemental carbon (OC and EC), elements, and water-soluble ions. The most abundant PM2.5 constituents were OC, EC, phosphate (PO43−), and fluoride (F−), contributing 7–91%, 0.2–40%, 1–44%, and 0.7–3% to the PM2.5 mass, respectively. While OC was more abundant during cell venting, EC and PO43− were more abundant when flaming combustion occurred. These freshly emitted particles were acidic. Overall, particles from LFP tests had higher OM but lower EC compared to LCO tests, consistent with the higher thermal stability of LFP cells.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-27
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10090301
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 9 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 302: A Y-Type Air-Cooled Battery Thermal
Management System with a Short Airflow Path for Temperature Uniformity
Authors: Xiangyang Li, Jing Liu, Xiaomin Li
First page: 302
Abstract: A Y-type air-cooled structure has been proposed to improve the heat dissipation efficiency and temperature uniformity of battery thermal management systems (BTMSs) by reducing the flow path of air. By combining computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods, the influence of the depths of the distribution and convergence plenums on the airflow velocity through battery cells was analyzed to improve heat dissipation efficiency. Adjusting the width of the first and ninth cooling channels can change the air velocity of these two channels, thereby improving the temperature uniformity of the BTMS. Further discussion was conducted regarding the influences of inlet and outlet depths. When the inlet width and outlet width were 20 mm, the maximum temperature and maximum temperature difference of the Y-type BTMS were 39.84 °C and 0.066 °C at a discharge rate of 2.5 °C, respectively; these temperatures were 1.537 °C (3.68%) and 0.059 °C (47.2%) lower than those of the T-type model. Meanwhile, the energy consumption of the sample also decreased by 13.1%. The results indicate that the heat dissipation performance of the proposed Y-type BTMS was improved, achieving excellent temperature uniformity, and the energy consumption was also reduced.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-27
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10090302
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 9 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 260: Advancements in Lithium–Oxygen
Batteries: A Comprehensive Review of Cathode and Anode Materials
Authors: Jing Guo, Xue Meng, Qing Wang, Yahui Zhang, Shengxue Yan, Shaohua Luo
First page: 260
Abstract: As modern society continues to advance, the depletion of non-renewable energy sources (such as natural gas and petroleum) exacerbates environmental and energy issues. The development of green, environmentally friendly energy storage and conversion systems is imperative. The energy density of commercial lithium-ion batteries is approaching its theoretical limit, and even so, it struggles to meet the rapidly growing market demand. Lithium–oxygen batteries have garnered significant attention from researchers due to their exceptionally high theoretical energy density. However, challenges such as poor electrolyte stability, short cycle life, low discharge capacity, and high overpotential arise from the sluggish kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) during discharge and the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) during charging. This article elucidates the fundamental principles of lithium–oxygen batteries, analyzes the primary issues currently faced, and summarizes recent research advancements in air cathodes and anodes. Additionally, it proposes future directions and efforts for the development of lithium–air batteries.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-23
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080260
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 261: Li-Ion Batteries with a Binder-Free Cathode
of Carbon Nanotubes-LiFePO4-Al Foam
Authors: Ying Jin, Shaoxin Wei, Zhoufei Yang, Chaojie Cui, Jin Wang, Dongliang Li, Weizhong Qian
First page: 261
Abstract: With the increasing demand for Li resources worldwide, the easy recycling of Li-ion batteries materials becomes essential. We report a binder-free cathode consisting of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and LiFePO4 (LFP) nanoparticles embedded in a 3D Al network. The electrode stability depends on the CNT ratio, where 3% CNT-wrapping LFPs provide a stable structure free of detachment from Al foam, as observed on Al foil. The binder-free cathode sheet exhibited excellent performance for high-rate discharge and long-term cycle life. Materials on the cathode can be easily detached with ultrasonic treatment when immersed in organic solvent, which is advantageous for a green and high-efficiency strategy of recycling all valuable materials compared to the binder-used electrode.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-24
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080261
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 262: Designing Strain-Less Electrode Materials:
Computational Analysis of Volume Variations in Li-Ion and Na-Ion Batteries
Authors: Maxime Maréchal, Romain Berthelot, Patrick Rozier, Matthieu Saubanère
First page: 262
Abstract: Mechanical degradation in electrode materials during successive electrochemical cycling is critical for battery lifetime and aging properties. A common strategy to mitigate electrode mechanical degradation is to suppress the volume variation induced by Li/Na intercalation/deintercalation, thereby designing strain-less electrodes. In this study, we investigate the electrochemically-induced volume variation in layered and spinel compounds used in Li-ion and Na-ion battery electrode materials through density functional theory computations. Specifically, we propose to decompose the volume variation into electronic, ionic, and structural contributions. Based on this analysis, we suggest methods to separately influence each contribution through strategies such as chemical substitution, doping, and polymorphism. Altogether, we conclude that volume variations can be controlled by designing either mechanically hard or compact electrode materials.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-25
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080262
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 263: Electrical Modeling and Characterization of
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy-Based Energy Storage Systems
Authors: Lei Bai, Jin-Yong Bae
First page: 263
Abstract: This study presents the electrical modeling and characteristic analyses of energy storage systems (ESSs) based on the internal impedance characteristics of batteries to improve ESS stability. Frequencies ranging from 1 kHz to 0.1 Hz were injected into lithium-ion batteries, and the variation of the internal impedance of the batteries was obtained based on the reflected wave to determine the ESS state of charge (SoC) and temperature. The changes in the basic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy characteristics of the ESSs were observed. Specifically, the voltage, temperature, and SoC of an ESS that could be employed as a renewable ESS were analyzed. The impedance characteristics of the ESS were investigated via experimentation and simulation. The ESS comprised an electrically equivalent circuit of a series inductor (LS), series resistor (RS), parallel resistor (RP), and parallel capacitor (CP), as well as a MATLAB program based on its transfer function to generate energy. Furthermore, a method was developed for analyzing the frequency response of ESSs. The feasibility of the proposed electrical modeling was examined for a 58.4 V, 75 Ah, 4.4 kWh ESS.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-25
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080263
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 264: Advanced Thermal Management of Cylindrical
Lithium-Ion Battery Packs in Electric Vehicles: A Comparative CFD Study of
Vertical, Horizontal, and Optimised Liquid Cooling Designs
Authors: Michael Murphy, Mohammad Akrami
First page: 264
Abstract: Battery packs found in electric vehicles (EVs) require thermal management systems to maintain safe operating temperatures in order to improve device performance and alleviate irregular temperatures that can cause irreversible damage to the cells. Cylindrical lithium-ion batteries are widely used in the electric vehicle industry due to their high energy density and extended life cycle. This report investigates the thermal performance of three liquid cooling designs for a six-cell battery pack using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The first two designs, vertical flow design (VFD) and horizontal flow design (HFD), are influenced by existing linear and wavy channel structures. They went through multiple geometry optimisations, where parameters such as inlet velocity, the number of channels, and channel diameter were tested before being combined into the third and final optimal design (OD). All designs successfully maintained the maximum temperature of the cells below 306.5 K at an inlet velocity of 0.5 ms−1, meeting the predefined performance thresholds derived from the literature. The HFD design was the only one that failed to meet the temperature uniformity goal of 5 K. The optimal design achieved a maximum temperature of 301.311 K, which was 2.223 K lower than the VFD, and 4.707 K lower than the HFD. Furthermore, it produced a cell temperature difference of 1.144 K, outperforming the next-best design by 1.647 K, thus demonstrating superior temperature regulation. The OD design can manage temperatures by using lower inlet velocities and reducing power consumption. However, the increased cooling efficiency comes at the cost of an increase in weight for the system. This prompts the decision on whether to accommodate the added weight for improved safety or to allocate it to the addition of more batteries to enhance the vehicle’s power output.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-25
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080264
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 265: Recent Advancements in Battery Thermal
Management Systems for Enhanced Performance of Li-Ion Batteries: A
Comprehensive Review
Authors: Amin Rahmani, Mahdieh Dibaj, Mohammad Akrami
First page: 265
Abstract: Li-ion batteries are crucial for sustainable energy, powering electric vehicles, and supporting renewable energy storage systems for solar and wind power integration. Keeping these batteries at temperatures between 285 K and 310 K is crucial for optimal performance. This requires efficient battery thermal management systems (BTMS). Many studies, both numerical and experimental, have focused on improving BTMS efficiency. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the latest BTMS designs developed in 2023 and 2024, with a focus on recent advancements and innovations. The primary objective is to evaluate these new designs to identify key improvements and trends. This review categorizes BTMS designs into four cooling methods: air-cooling, liquid-cooling, phase change material (PCM)-cooling, and thermoelectric cooling. It provides a detailed analysis of each method. It also offers a unique examination of hybrid cooling BTMSs, classifying them based on their impact on the cooling process. A hybrid-cooling BTMS refers to a method that combines at least two of the four types of BTMS (air-cooling, liquid-cooling, PCM-cooling, and thermoelectric-cooling) to enhance thermal management efficiency. Unlike previous reviews, this study emphasizes the novelty of recent designs and the substantial results they achieve, offering significant insights and recommendations for future research and development in BTMS. By highlighting the latest innovations and providing an in-depth analysis, this paper serves as a valuable resource for researchers and engineers aiming to enhance battery performance and sustainability through advanced thermal management solutions.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-26
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080265
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 266: Influence of Acetonitrile on the
Electrochemical Behavior of Ionic Liquid-Based Supercapacitors
Authors: Boryana Karamanova, Luybomir Soserov, Elefteria Lefterova, Toma Stankulov, Antonia Stoyanova
First page: 266
Abstract: The creation of supercapacitors with superior energy density and power capabilities is critical for advanced energy storage solutions. Ionic liquid electrolytes offer a promising alternative in this respect. However, improving their cycle stability and efficiency is a complex task requiring extensive research and significant effort. The high viscosity of ionic liquids (ILs) limits their lifetime, but this can be mitigated by increasing the temperature or adding solvents. In this research, the electrochemical performance of symmetric activated carbon supercapacitors with 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (EMIMBF4) and different ratios of acetonitrile (ACN) as electrolytes were investigated. Long-term galvanostatic charge/discharge tests, impedance studies, and cyclic voltammetry were performed at temperatures between 24 to 60 °C. The addition of ACN to the ionic liquid increased electrochemical stability and reduced internal resistance, with the best performance observed at a 1:2 volume ratio of EMIMBF4 to ACN. This supercapacitor exhibited 87% cyclic stability after 5000 charge/discharge cycles in the voltage range of 0.05–2.8 V and a current rate of 1 Ag−1. It also achieved an energy density of 23 Whkg−1 and a power density of 748 Wkg−1. The supercapacitors were stable at elevated temperatures up to 60 °C, showing no degradation after operation under various thermal conditions.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-26
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080266
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 267: An Aging-Optimized
State-of-Charge-Controlled Multi-Stage Constant Current (MCC) Fast
Charging Algorithm for Commercial Li-Ion Battery Based on Three-Electrode
Measurements
Authors: Alexis Kalk, Lea Leuthner, Christian Kupper, Marc Hiller
First page: 267
Abstract: This paper proposes a method that leads to a highly accurate state-of-charge dependent multi-stage constant current (MCC) charging algorithm for electric bicycle batteries to reduce the charging time without accelerating aging by avoiding Li-plating. First, the relation between the current rate, state-of-charge, and Li-plating is experimentally analyzed with the help of three-electrode measurements. Therefore, a SOC-dependent charging algorithm is proposed. Secondly, a SOC estimation algorithm based on an Extended Kalman Filter is developed in MATLAB/Simulink to conduct high accuracy SOC estimations and control precisely the charging algorithm. The results of the experiments showed that the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of SOC estimation is 1.08%, and the charging time from 0% to 80% SOC is reduced by 30%.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-26
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080267
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 268: Binders for Li-Ion Battery Technologies and
Beyond: A Comprehensive Review
Authors: Muskan Srivastava, Anil Kumar M. R., Karim Zaghib
First page: 268
Abstract: The effects of global warming highlight the urgent need for effective solutions to this problem. The electrification of society, which occurs through the widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), is a critical strategy to combat climate change. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are vital components of the global energy-storage market for EVs, and sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have gained renewed interest owing to their potential for rapid growth. Improved safety and stability have also put solid-state batteries (SSBs) on the chart of top batteries in the world. This review examines three critical battery technologies: LIBs, SIBs, and SSBs. Although research has historically concentrated on heavier battery components, such as electrodes, to achieve high gravimetric density, binders, which comprise less than 5% of the battery weight, have demonstrated great promise for meeting the increasing need for energy storage. This review thoroughly examines various binders, focusing on their solubilities in water and organic solvents. Understanding binder mechanisms is crucial for developing binders that maintain strong adhesion to electrodes, even during volume fluctuations caused by lithiation and delithiation. Therefore, we investigated the different mechanisms associated with binders. This review also discusses failure mechanisms and innovative design strategies to improve the performance of binders, such as composite, conductive, and self-healing binders. By investigating these fields, we hope to develop energy storage technologies that are more dependable and efficient while also helping to satisfy future energy needs.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-26
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080268
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 269: Experimental and Modeling Study of Arc
Fault Induced Thermal Runaway in Prismatic Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Wenqiang Xu, Kai Zhou, Hewu Wang, Languang Lu, Bin Gao, Yan Wang, Yalun Li
First page: 269
Abstract: With the widespread application of electrochemical energy storage technology, the safety issues of lithium-ion batteries have garnered significant attention. The issue of arc faults resulting from electrical failures is especially critical, as it can lead to catastrophic battery disasters. Therefore, this paper first established an arc testing platform and conducted experiments on top cover and body of prismatic lithium-ion batteries to analyze the thermoelectric characteristics between arc and battery. Under experimental conditions of 300 V and 15 A, it was found that arcs can induce thermal runaway in batteries. Subsequently, based on the experimental conditions, a mathematical model was established to induce thermal runaway in batteries through an equivalent method of arc heat source. By comparing the temperature curves of model and experiment, the RMSE of temperature at the center point of large surface was 5.09 °C (with a maximum temperature of 212 °C), indicating the accuracy of the model. This paper’s research on arc faults in battery systems revealed the evolution pattern and realized that arcs can trigger thermal runaway in batteries. The model for arc-triggered thermal runaway in batteries is highly accurate, capable of reducing the number of experiments, accelerating experimental progress, and is of significant importance for guiding the design of arc experiments about batteries.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-28
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080269
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 270: Experimental Research on Thermal-Venting
Characteristics of the Failure 280 Ah LiFePO4 Battery: Atmospheric
Pressure Impacts and Safety Assessment
Authors: Yu Wang, Yan Wang, Jingyuan Zhao, Hongxu Li, Chengshan Xu, Yalun Li, Hewu Wang, Languang Lu, Feng Dai, Ruiguang Yu, Feng Qian
First page: 270
Abstract: With the widespread application of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) energy storage stations in high-altitude areas, the impact of ambient pressure on battery thermal runaway (TR) behavior and venting flow characteristics have aroused wide research attention. This paper conducts a lateral heating experiment on 280 Ah lithium iron phosphate batteries (LFPs) and proposes a method for testing battery internal pressure using an embedded pressure sensor. This paper analyzes the battery characteristic temperature, internal pressure, chamber pressure, and gas components under different chamber pressures. The experiment is carried out in a N2 atmosphere using a 1000 L insulated chamber. At 40 kPa, the battery experiences two instances of venting, with a corresponding peak in temperature on the battery’s side of 136.3 °C and 302.8 °C, and gas generation rates of 0.14 mol/s and 0.09 mol/s, respectively. The research results indicate that changes in chamber pressure significantly affect the center temperature of the battery side (Ts), the center temperature of the chamber (Tc), the opening time of the safety valve (topen), the triggering time of TR (tTR), the time difference (Δt), venting velocity, gas composition, and flammable limits. However, the internal pressure and gas content of the battery are apparently unaffected. Considering the TR characteristics mentioned above, a safety assessment method is proposed to evaluate the TR behavior and gas hazard of the battery. The results indicate that the risk at 40 kPa is much higher than the other three chamber pressures. This study provides theoretical references for the safe use and early warning of energy storage LIBs in high-altitude areas.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-29
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080270
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 271: Review of Energy Storage Capacitor
Technology
Authors: Wenting Liu, Xianzhong Sun, Xinyu Yan, Yinghui Gao, Xiong Zhang, Kai Wang, Yanwei Ma
First page: 271
Abstract: Capacitors exhibit exceptional power density, a vast operational temperature range, remarkable reliability, lightweight construction, and high efficiency, making them extensively utilized in the realm of energy storage. There exist two primary categories of energy storage capacitors: dielectric capacitors and supercapacitors. Dielectric capacitors encompass film capacitors, ceramic dielectric capacitors, and electrolytic capacitors, whereas supercapacitors can be further categorized into double-layer capacitors, pseudocapacitors, and hybrid capacitors. These capacitors exhibit diverse operational principles and performance characteristics, subsequently dictating their specific application scenarios. To make informed decisions in selecting capacitors for practical applications, a comprehensive knowledge of their structure and operational principles is imperative. Consequently, this review delved into the structure, working principles, and unique characteristics of the aforementioned capacitors, aiming to clarify the distinctions between dielectric capacitors, supercapacitors, and lithium-ion capacitors.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-29
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080271
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 272: Improving LiFe0.4Mn0.6PO4 Nanoplate
Performance by a Dual Modification Strategy toward the Practical
Application of Li-Ion Batteries
Authors: Mingfeng Tan, Helei Wei, Qi Li, Zhipeng Yu, Qiang Zhang, Mingzhi Lin, Bo Lin
First page: 272
Abstract: A novel composite consisting of fluorine-doped carbon and graphene double-coated LiMn0.6Fe0.4PO4 (LMFP) nanorods was synthesized via a facile low-temperature solvothermal method that employs a hybrid glucose and polyvinylidene fluoride as carbon and fluorine sources. As revealed by physicochemical characterization, F-doped carbon coating and graphene form a ‘point-to-surface’ conductive network, facilitating rapid electron transport and mitigating electrochemical polarization. Furthermore, the uniform thickness of the F-doped carbon coating alters the growth of nanoparticles and prevents direct contact between the material and the electrolyte, thereby enhancing structural stability. The strongly electronegative F− can inhibit the structural changes in LMFP during charge/discharge, thus reducing the Jahn–Teller effect of Mn3+. The distinctive architecture of the LMFP/C-F/G cathode material exhibits excellent electrochemical properties, exhibiting an initial discharge capacity of 163.1 mAh g−1 at 0.1 C and a constant Coulombic efficiency of 99.7% over 100 cycles. Notably, the LMFP/C-F/G cathode material achieves an impressive energy density of 607.6 Wh kg−1, surpassing that of commercial counterparts. Moreover, it delivers a reversible capacity of 90.3 mAh g−1 at a high current rate of 5 C. The high-capacity capability and energy density of the prepared materials give them great potential for use in next-generation lithium-ion batteries.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-29
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080272
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 273: Optimization of the Operating Voltage of
Cobalt-Free Nickel-in-Medium Cathodes for High-Performance Lithium-Ion
Batteries
Authors: Yuchuan Qi, Shuheng Hou, Ningbo Qin, Ting Huang, Jiawen Guo, Xianghua Hou, Ning Huang, Yifan Liu, Xijun Liu
First page: 273
Abstract: Medium-nickel cobalt-free cathode materials have attracted much attention in recent years for their low cost and high energy density. However, the structural stability of nickel-based cathode materials becomes compromised when accompanied by the increasing of voltage, leading to poor cycling performance and, thus, hindering their widespread industrial application. In this work, we investigated the optimal charge cut-off voltage for the nickel-based cathode material LiNi0.6Mn0.4O2 (NM64). Within the voltage range of 3.0 to 4.5 V, the electrode energy density reached 784.08 Wh/kg, with an initial Coulombic efficiency of 84.49%. The reversible specific capacity at 0.1 C reached 197.84 mAh/g, and it still maintained a high reversible specific capacity of nearly 150 mAh/g, with a capacity retention rate of 86% after 150 cycles at 1 C. Furthermore, NM64 exhibited an intact morphological structure without noticeable cracking after 150 cycles, indicating excellent structural stability. This study emphasizes the relationship between the stability of NM64 cathodes and different operating voltage ranges, thereby promoting the development of high-voltage layered nickel-based cathode materials.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-30
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080273
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 274: Effects of Non-Uniform Temperature
Distribution on the Degradation of Liquid-Cooled Parallel-Connected
Lithium-Ion Cells
Authors: Takuto Iriyama, Muriel Carter, Gabriel M. Cavalheiro, Pragati Poudel, George J. Nelson, Guangsheng Zhang
First page: 274
Abstract: Our previous work on an air-cooled stack of five pouch-format lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells showed that non-uniform temperature can cause accelerated degradation, especially of the middle cell. In this work, a stack of five similar cells was cycled at a higher C-rate and water-cooled to create a larger temperature gradient for comparison with the air-cooled stack. It was hypothesized that the larger temperature gradient in the water-cooled stack would exacerbate the degradation of the middle cell. However, the results showed that the middle cell degraded slightly slower than the side cells in the water-cooled stack. This trend is opposite to that in the air-cooled stack. This difference could be attributed to the combined effects of a smaller temperature rise and larger temperature gradient in the water-cooled stack than in the air-cooled stack. Post-mortem analysis of cycled cells and a fresh cell showed that the degradation mainly came from the anode. Increased lithium plating and decreased porosity in the side cells are possible mechanisms for the faster degradation compared with the middle cell. It was also found that all the cells in the water-cooled stack experienced a phenomenon of capacity drop and recovery after a low C-rate reference performance test and extended rest. This phenomenon can be attributed to lithium diffusion between the anode active area and the anode overhang area.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-30
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080274
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 275: Influence of Vinylene Carbonate and
Fluoroethylene Carbonate on Open Circuit and Floating SoC Calendar Aging
of Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Karsten Geuder, Sebastian Klick, Philipp Finster, Karl Martin Graff, Martin Winter, Sascha Nowak, Hans Jürgen Seifert, Carlos Ziebert
First page: 275
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the calendar aging of lithium-ion batteries by using both open circuit and floating current measurements. Existing degradation studies usually focus on commercial cells. The initial electrolyte composition and formation protocol for these cells is often unknown. This study investigates the role of electrolyte additives, specifically, vinylene carbonate (VC) and fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), in the aging process of lithium-ion batteries. The results showed that self-discharge plays a significant role in determining the severity of aging for cells without additives. Interestingly, the aging was less severe for the cells without additives as they deviated more from their original storage state of charge. It was also observed that the addition of VC and FEC had an effect on the formation and stability of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer on the surface of the carbonaceous anode. By gaining a better understanding of the aging processes and the effects of different electrolyte additives, we can improve the safety and durability of lithium-ion batteries, which is critical for their widespread adoption in various applications.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-30
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080275
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 276: Investigating the Role of Flow Plate
Surface Roughness in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells with the Use
of Multiphysics Simulations
Authors: Odysseas Gkionis-Konstantatos, Luciana Tavares, Thomas Ebel
First page: 276
Abstract: This study investigates the influence of surface roughness on the performance of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) through computational simulations using COMSOL Multiphysics. Two distinct gas flow channel (GFC) models of serpentine and parallel GFC structures were analysed, featuring various surface roughness levels to examine their impact on gas pressure and velocity dynamics. Rough surfaces are modeled using trigonometric functions to replicate machining-induced variations. Finite element simulations were conducted, assessing the time-dependent relationship between gas pressure and velocity while considering different electrode phase potentials as a function of surface roughness. Rough surfaces generally enhance mass transport, water management, and current distribution compared to smooth surfaces. The results indicated that a surface roughness of approximately 1 µm optimizes PEMFC performance by balancing pressure and velocity, enhancing electrochemical reactions, and reducing excessive pressure drops within the cell. Notably, the 0.7 V operating voltage was found to be the most efficient, achieving rapid stabilization of pressure and velocity levels swiftly. The findings underscore the importance of precise control over GFC roughness to enhance PEMFC performance gains in commercial applications, especially when multiple cells are stacked to achieve high power outputs.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-30
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080276
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 277: Revisiting Pulse-Based OCV Incremental
Capacity Analysis for Diagnostics of Li-Ion Batteries
Authors: Julia Wind, Preben J. S. Vie
First page: 277
Abstract: This paper presents the concept of applying incremental capacity analysis (ICA) on the OCV curve in the SoC space. The OCV curve can be obtained from any sequence of discharge or charge current or power pulse with a necessary rest period to allow the cell to reach a pseudo-OCV after each pulse. With a high resolution (>100 pulses) in the full SoC window, an OCV-vs.-SoC curve can be obtained with sufficient accuracy to perform an ICA on the obtained OCV curve. ICA as a diagnostic technique has commonly been applied on Li-ion cells with constant charge and discharge at slow currents. However, a slow controlled constant current charge or discharge is normally not feasible and cannot be easily applied to a battery in an application. Here, we revisit pulse-based ICA to supplement the conventional constant-current-based technique. Based on actual ageing data, we show that ICA performed on a selection of high-resolution OCV curves is comparable or better than conventional ICA with constant current. The main advantage of OCV-ICA is that it can be applied to most cells and systems without a significant interruption of normal cell operation. OCV-ICA can provide valuable insights into ageing mechanisms as well as, e.g., detailed information on changes in internal resistance.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-03
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080277
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 278: Estimating the Health State of Lithium-Ion
Batteries Using an Adaptive Gated Sequence Network and Hierarchical
Feature Construction
Authors: Ke Wang, Qingzhong Gao, Xinfu Pang, Haibo Li, Wei Liu
First page: 278
Abstract: State of health (SOH) estimation plays a vital role in ensuring the safe and stable operation of lithium-ion battery management systems (BMSs). Data-driven methods are widely used to estimate SOH; however, existing methods often suffer from fixed or excessively high feature dimensions, impacting the model’s adjustability and applicability. This study first proposed a layered knee point strategy based on the charging voltage curve, which reduced the complexity of feature extraction. Then, a new hybrid framework called the adaptive gated sequence network (AGSN) model was proposed. This model integrated independently recurrent neural network (IndRNN) layers, active state tracking long short-term memory (AST-LSTM) layers, and adaptive gating mechanism (AGM) layers. By integrating a multi-layered structure and an adaptive gating mechanism, the SOH prediction performance was significantly improved. Finally, batteries under different operating conditions were tested using the NASA battery dataset. The results show that the AGSN model demonstrated higher accuracy and robustness in battery SOH estimation, with estimation errors consistently within 1%.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-03
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080278
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 279: Comparative Issues of Metal-Ion Batteries
toward Sustainable Energy Storage: Lithium vs. Sodium
Authors: Atiyeh Nekahi, Mehrdad Dorri, Mina Rezaei, Mohamed Djihad Bouguern, Anil Kumar Madikere Raghunatha Reddy, Xia Li, Sixu Deng, Karim Zaghib
First page: 279
Abstract: In recent years, batteries have revolutionized electrification projects and accelerated the energy transition. Consequently, battery systems were hugely demanded based on large-scale electrification projects, leading to significant interest in low-cost and more abundant chemistries to meet these requirements in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). As a result, lithium iron phosphate (LFP) share has increased considerably due to lower cost and higher safety compared to conventional nickel and cobalt-based chemistries. However, their fast-growing share is affected by updated chemistries, where cheaper systems like sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are becoming more attractive. SIBs also benefited from the greener, more ethical, and evenly distributed elemental resources. SIBs are fast approaching market thanks to mature LIB’s technology and manufacturing scalability using existing Li-ion gigafactories. Additionally, SIBs can be adapted to other emerging technologies, including Li-ion batteries and silicon-based anodes, influencing projections for their broader use. However, despite the lower cost and abundance of sodium chemistries compared to lithium ones, limited manufacturing capacity discourages material suppliers from increasing production, which restricts the supply chain, raises costs, and diminishes Na battery manufacturing. Here, we aim to provide an overview of the progress of SIBs in gaining market share from LIBs. We first reviewed LIB and SIB histories, developments, and market share. Then, we analyzed the offered chemicals in battery components, their resources and supplies, material demand, and supply chain. The commercialization of each system was investigated in addition to the challenges related to energy density, environmental impact, sustainability, and safety. If all these concerns are addressed properly, LIBs and SIBs could potentially offer a more affordable, safer, and sustainable choice for the global energy storage outlook, particularly in short-range electric vehicles and stationary grid storage.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-04
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080279
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 280: Sustainable Battery Lifecycle:
Non-Destructive Separation of Batteries and Potential Second Life
Applications
Authors: Gernot Schlögl, Stefan Grollitsch, Christian Ellersdorfer, Florian Feist, Christoph Kirschner, Josef Ecker, Franz Haas
First page: 280
Abstract: Large quantities of battery systems will be discarded from electric vehicles in the future. Non-destructive separation of used electric vehicle (EV) traction batteries enables a second life of battery components, extraction of high value secondary materials, and reduces the environmental footprint of recycling and separation processes. In this study, the key performance indicators (KPIs) for the second life application of spent EV batteries are identified. Three battery packs are analyzed in terms of the joining techniques used—and possible separation techniques—considering only direct recycling methods. The components that can be recovered from these batteries are evaluated against the KPIs. This study shows that all the batteries analyzed allow a second life in stationary and semi-stationary electrical storage systems and marine applications when used at the pack and module levels. Two packs can be reused in electric vehicles such as forklifts. However, the feasibility of re-use in micro-mobility and consumer electronics is very limited. This study shows that technically feasible separation methods are dictated and constrained by the joining techniques used. As welding and adhesive bonding pose challenges to separation processes, future efforts should prioritize ‘design for disassembly’ to ensure sustainable battery life cycle management.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-05
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080280
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 281: Water Effect on the Electronic Properties
and Lithium-Ion Conduction in a Defect-Engineered LiFePO4 Electrode
Authors: Guoqing Wang, Pengfei Xu, Halefom G. Desta, Bayu Admasu Beshiwork, Baihai Li, Workneh Getachew Adam, Bin Lin
First page: 281
Abstract: Defect-engineering accelerates the conduction of lithium ions in the cathode materials of lithium-ion batteries. However, the effects of defect-engineering on ion conduction and its mechanisms in humid environments remain unclear in the academic discourse. Here, we report on the effect of vacancy defects on the electronic properties of and Li-ion diffusion in a LiFePO4 material in humid environments. The research findings indicate that vacancy defects reduce the lattice constant and unit cell volume of LiFePO4. Additionally, the water molecules occupy the Li-ion vacancies, leading to an increase in the lattice constant of LiFePO4. The computational results of the electronic properties show that the introduction of water molecules induces a transition in LiFePO4 from a semiconductor to a metallic behavior, with a transfer of 0.38 e of charge from the water molecules to LiFePO4. Additionally, the migration barrier for Li ions in the H2O + LiFePO4 system is found to be 0.50 eV, representing an 11.1% increase compared to the pristine LiFePO4 migration barrier. Our findings suggest that water molecules impede the migration of Li ions and provide important insights into the effect of defect-engineering on electronic properties and ion conduction under humid conditions.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-06
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080281
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 282: Study on Thermal Runaway Behavior and Jet
Characteristics of a 156 Ah Prismatic Ternary Lithium Battery
Authors: Huipeng Zhang
First page: 282
Abstract: Ternary lithium batteries have been widely used in transportation and energy storage due to their high energy density and long cycle life. However, safety issues arising from thermal runaway (TR) need urgent resolution. Current research on thermal runaway in large-capacity ternary lithium batteries is limited, making the study of hazard indicators during the thermal runaway ejection process crucial. This study places a commercial 156 Ah prismatic battery (positive electrode material: Li(Ni0.8Mn0.1Co0.1)O2, negative electrode material: graphite) in a nitrogen-filled sealed container, triggering thermal runaway through lateral heating. The experimental results show that the battery’s maximum surface temperature can reach 851.8–943.7 °C, exceeding the melting point of aluminum. Temperature surge inflection points at the battery’s bottom and near the small side of the negative electrode coincide with the inflection point on the heated surface. The highest jet temperatures at three monitoring points 50 mm, 150 mm, and 250 mm above the safety valve are 356.9 °C, 302.7 °C, and 216.5 °C, respectively. Acoustic signals reveal two ejection events. The average gas production of the battery is 0.089 mol/Ah, and the jet undergoes three stages: ultra-fast ejection (2 s), rapid ejection (32 s), and slow ejection (47 s). Post-thermal runaway remnants indicate that grooves from internal jet impacts are mainly located at ±45° positions. This study provides valuable insights for the safety design of batteries and the suppression of thermal runaway propagation.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-06
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080282
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 283: A Physics–Guided Machine Learning
Approach for Capacity Fading Mechanism Detection and Fading Rate
Prediction Using Early Cycle Data
Authors: Jiwei Yao, Qiang Gao, Tao Gao, Benben Jiang, Kody M. Powell
First page: 283
Abstract: Lithium–ion battery development necessitates predicting capacity fading using early cycle data to minimize testing time and costs. This study introduces a hybrid physics–guided data–driven approach to address this challenge by accurately determining the dominant fading mechanism and predicting the average capacity fading rate. Physics–guided features, derived from the electrochemical properties and behaviors within the battery, are extracted from the first five cycles to provide meaningful, interpretable, and predictive data. Unlike previous models that rely on a single regression approach, our method utilizes two separate regression models tailored to the identified dominant fading mechanisms. Our model achieves 95.6% accuracy in determining the dominant fading mechanism using data from the second cycle and a mean absolute percentage error of 17.09% in predicting lifetime capacity fade from the first five cycles. This represents a substantial improvement over state–of–the–art models, which have an error rate approximately three times higher. This study underscores the significance of physics–guided data characterization and the necessity of identifying the primary fading mechanism prior to predicting the capacity fading rate in lithium–ion batteries.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-08
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080283
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 284: Advancements and Challenges in
Perovskite-Based Photo-Induced Rechargeable Batteries and Supercapacitors:
A Comparative Review
Authors: Anil Kumar M. R., Atiyeh Nekahi, Mohamed Djihad Bouguern, Dongling Ma, Karim Zaghib
First page: 284
Abstract: Perovskite-based photo-batteries (PBs) have been developed as a promising combination of photovoltaic and electrochemical technology due to their cost-effective design and significant increase in solar-to-electric power conversion efficiency. The use of complex metal oxides of the perovskite-type in batteries and photovoltaic cells has attracted considerable attention. Because of its variable bandgap, non-rigid structure, high light absorption capacity, long charge carrier diffusion length, and high charge mobility, this material has shown promise in energy storage devices, especially Li-ion batteries (LIBs) and PBs. This review paper focuses on recent progress and comparative analysis of PBs using perovskite-based materials. The practical application of these batteries as dependable power sources faces significant technical and financial challenges because solar radiation is alternating. In order to address this, research is being performed on PBs with the integration of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) as a way to balance energy availability and demand, cut down on energy waste, and stabilize power output for wearable and portable electronics as well as energy storage applications.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-08
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080284
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 285: Copper Wire Resistance Corrosion Test for
Assessing Copper Compatibility of E-Thermal Fluids for Battery Electric
Vehicles (BEVs)
Authors: Bernardo Tormos, Santiago Ruiz, Jorge Alvis-Sanchez, Leonardo Israel Farfan-Cabrera
First page: 285
Abstract: This study aims to assess the compatibility of various e-thermal fluids for immersion cooling in battery electric vehicles through a copper wire resistance corrosion test. The tested fluids include a polyalphaolefin, diester, mineral oil API G-III, transformer oil, and a fully formulated dielectric coolant. The test was conducted at 130 °C for 336 h, and the resistance of the copper wires was monitored in vapor and oil phases. By comparing the resistance variation and analyzing portions of the wires through scanning electron microscopy, it was found that the vapor phase of PAO and diester in one of the tests exhibited significant corrosion, while the dielectric coolant showed minimal corrosive effects, implying better compatibility. These results provide insights into the corrosion behavior and compatibility of the fluids with copper, which are essential for selecting suitable dielectric fluids for immersion cooling applications in electric vehicles.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-09
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080285
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 286: A Temporal Fusion Memory Network-Based
Method for State-of-Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Kang Chen, Dandan Wang, Wenwen Guo
First page: 286
Abstract: As energy storage technologies and electric vehicles evolve quickly, it becomes increasingly difficult to precisely gauge the condition (SOH) of lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) during rapid charging scenarios. This paper introduces a novel Time-Fused Memory Network (TFMN) for SOH estimation, integrating advanced feature extraction and learning techniques. Both directly measured and computationally derived features are extracted from the charge/discharge curves to simulate real-world fast-charging conditions. This comprehensive process captures the complex dynamics of battery behavior effectively. The TFMN method utilizes one-dimensional convolutional neural networks (1DCNNs) to capture local features, refined further by a channel self-attention module (CSAM) for robust SOH prediction. Long short-term memory (LSTM) modules process these features to capture long-term dependencies essential for understanding evolving battery health patterns. A multi-head attention module enhances the model by learning varied feature representations, significantly improving SOH estimation accuracy. Validated on a self-constructed dataset and the public Toyota dataset, the model demonstrates superior accuracy and robustness, improving performance by 30–50% compared to other models. This approach not only refines SOH estimation under fast-charging conditions but also offers new insights for effective battery management and maintenance, advancing battery health monitoring technologies.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-10
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080286
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 287: Experimental Study on Thermal Runaway
Characteristics of High-Nickel Ternary Lithium-Ion Batteries under Normal
and Low Pressures
Authors: Ye Jin, Di Meng, Chen-Xi Zhao, Jia-Ling Yu, Xue-Hui Wang, Jian Wang
First page: 287
Abstract: High-nickel (Ni) ternary lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used in low-pressure environments such as in the aviation industry, but their attribute of high energy density poses significant fire hazards, especially under low pressure where thermal runaway behavior is complex, thus requiring relevant experiments. This study investigates the thermal runaway characteristics of LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NCM811) 18650 LIBs at different states of charge (SOCs) (75%, 100%) under various ambient pressures (101 kPa, 80 kPa, 60 kPa, 40 kPa). The results show that, as the pressure is decreased from 101 kPa to 40 kPa, the onset time of thermal runaway is extended by 28.2 s for 75% SOC and by 40.8 s for 100% SOC; accordingly, the onset temperature of thermal runaway increases by 19.3 °C for 75% SOC and by 33.5 °C for 100% SOC; the maximum surface temperature decreases by 70.8 °C for 75% SOC and by 68.2 °C for 100% SOC. The cell mass loss and loss rate slightly decrease with reduced pressure. However, ambient pressure has little impact on the time and temperature of venting as well as the voltage drop time. SEM/EDS analysis verifies that electrolyte evaporates faster under low pressure. Furthermore, the oxygen concentration is lower under low pressure, which consequently leads to a delay in thermal runaway. This study contributes to understanding thermal runaway characteristics of high-Ni ternary LIBs and provides guidance for their safe application in low-pressure aviation environments.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-12
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080287
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 288: Review of Photovoltaic–Battery Energy
Storage Systems for Grid-Forming Operation
Authors: Kai Yin, Yi Xiao, Xiaomeng Shen, Yinxiao Zhu, Yongheng Yang
First page: 288
Abstract: Coordinated control technology attracts increasing attention to the photovoltaic–battery energy storage (PV-BES) systems for the grid-forming (GFM) operation. However, there is an absence of a unified perspective that reviews the coordinated GFM control for PV-BES systems based on different system configurations. This paper aims to fill the gap by providing a comprehensive review of coordinated GFM control strategies for PV-BES, considering various system configurations. Typical configurations of PV-BES systems are explored, followed by a detailed discussion of conventional GFM control methods used in the PV-BES systems. Furthermore, coordinated GFM controls are analyzed in PV-BES systems based on different configurations, providing the common DC bus configuration as a widely adopted configuration due to its more control degrees of freedom and ease of expansion. Moreover, the mode division and switching coordinated control based on the system power is the most widely used. Furthermore, challenges in the coordinated GFM controls for the PV-BES system in future applications are briefed and emphasized before the conclusion.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-12
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080288
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 289: Revealing a Correlation between Physical
Parameters and Differential Voltage Analysis of a Commercial Li-Ion
Battery Based on Fiber Optic Sensors
Authors: Lucca Matuck, Marta S. Ferreira, Micael Nascimento
First page: 289
Abstract: This work describes a specialized optical fiber hybrid sensing configuration conceived to monitor internal physical parameters (temperature and pressure) within Li-ion batteries (LiBs) and correlate them with electrochemical performance in operando. The batteries underwent thorough cycling tests under C/3 and C/5 operating rate conditions. Throughout the cycling tests, the optical fiber sensors revealed a compelling correlation between internal and external temperature behavior. Additionally, the application of differential voltage analysis derivative curves during battery operation unveiled insights into the relationship between pressure and temperature changes and the batteries’ electrochemical performance. This optical sensing approach contributes to an understanding of internal LiB dynamics, offering implications for optimizing their performance and safety across diverse applications.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-13
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080289
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 290: State-of-Charge and State-of-Health
Estimation in Li-Ion Batteries Using Cascade Electrochemical Model-Based
Sliding-Mode Observers
Authors: Yong Feng, Chen Xue, Fengling Han, Zhenwei Cao, Rebecca Jing Yang
First page: 290
Abstract: This paper proposes a cascade approach based on a sliding mode observer (SMO) for estimating the state of charge (SoC) and state of health (SoH) of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries using a single particle model (SPM). After convergence, the observation error signal of the current node in the cascade observer is generated from the output injection signal of the previous node’s observer. The current node’s observer generates its output injection signal, leading to its convergence. This sequential process accurately determines the observed values of each node using only the battery’s current and voltage. Subsequently, the SoC and SoH are estimated using observations of lithium-ion concentrations on the surface and inside the battery anode. The accuracy of this approach is validated using Dynamic Stress Test (DST) and Federal Urban Driving Scheme (FUDS) experimental data. A comparative analysis with conventional SMO and Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) algorithms demonstrates the approach’s effectiveness and superior performance, confirming its practical applicability.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-15
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080290
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 291: Correction: Grabow et al. Triggering and
Characterisation of Realistic Internal Short Circuits in Lithium-Ion Pouch
Cells—A New Approach Using Precise Needle Penetration. Batteries
2023, 9, 496
Authors: Jens Grabow, Jacob Klink, Nury Orazov, Ralf Benger, Ines Hauer, Hans-Peter Beck
First page: 291
Abstract: The authors wish to make the following corrections to their paper [...]
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-19
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080291
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 292: Deep Learning Regression with Sequences of
Different Length: An Application for State of Health Trajectory Prediction
and Remaining Useful Life Estimation in Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Michele Bellomo, Spyridon Giazitzis, Susheel Badha, Filippo Rosetti, Alberto Dolara, Emanuele Ogliari
First page: 292
Abstract: This study presents methods to handle deep learning regressions with input and output sequences of different lengths. We discuss the Autoregressive one-step prediction framework and introduce an innovative one-time multi-step (OTMS) prediction approach, based on a custom loss function, that predicts all future steps in a single shot. The presented methodologies are then applied to simultaneously predict the State of Health (SoH) trajectory and estimate the Remaining Useful Life (RUL) of lithium-ion battery cells. Accurate estimates of SoH trajectory and RUL are essential for Battery Management Systems (BMSs), electronic systems that guarantee safety while maximizing performance and extending battery lifespan. In this context, the studied methodologies were compared using a rigorous cross-validation approach. The OTMS model showed better predictions in early cycles, while the Autoregressive model performed better in later cycles, suggesting a hybrid approach between these two methodologies as an optimal solution.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-20
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080292
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 293: Addition of a Polar, Porous
Phase-Inversion-PVDF Membrane to Lithium–Sulfur Cells (LSBs) Already
with a Microporous Polypropylene Separator Enhances the Battery
Performance
Authors: Irshad Mohammad, Luke D. J. Barter, Carol Crean, Robert C. T. Slade
First page: 293
Abstract: Lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs) are widely studied as an alternative to lithium-ion batteries, this emphasis being due to their high theoretical energy density and low cost, and to the high natural abundance of sulfur. Lithium polysulfide shuttling and lithium dendrite growth have limited their commercialization. Porous polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) separators have shown improved performance (relative to hydrocarbon separators) in lithium-ion batteries due to faster lithium-ion migration and higher Li+ transference number. A thin polar PVDF membrane has now been fabricated via phase inversion (an immersion-precipitation method) yielding a β (polar) phase concentration of 72%. Preparation from commercial PVDF used dimethylformamide (DMF) solvent at the optimized crystallizing temperature of 70 °C, and pores in the membrane were generated by exchange of DMF with deionized water as non-solvent. The polar PVDF film produced has the advantages of being ultrathin (15 µm), lightweight (1.15 mg cm−2), of high porosity (75%) and high wettability (84%), and it shows enhanced thermal stability relative to polypropylene (PP). The porous, polar PVDF membrane was combined with a commercially available PP membrane to give a hybrid, two-layer, separator combination for LSBs. A synergy was created in the two-layer separator, providing high sulfur utilization and curbing polysulfide shuttling. The electrochemical performance with the hybrid separator (PP–β-PVDF) was evaluated in LSB cells and showed good cyclability and rate capability: those LSB cells showed a stable capacity of 750 mA h g−1 after 100 cycles at 0.1 C, much higher than that for otherwise-identical cells using a commercial PP-only separator (480 mA h g−1).
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-21
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080293
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 294: Oxygen Vacancy-Rich δ-MnO2 Cathode
Materials for Highly Stable Zinc-Ion Batteries
Authors: Shilong Li, Xiang Wu
First page: 294
Abstract: As an emerging secondary battery system, aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs) show a broad application prospect in the fields of large-scale energy storage and wearable devices. Manganese-based cathode materials have been widely investigated by many researchers due to their high natural abundance, low toxicity, and multiple variable valence states. However, limited active sites, insufficient solvation, and reactivity kinetics of Mn2+ lead to the attenuation of their electrochemical performance. Herein, we introduce appropriate oxygen vacancies into the δ-MnO2 structure by modulating the annealing temperature. The obtained δ-MnO2-400 electrode provided 503 mAh/g capacity at 0.2 A/g and 99% capacity retention after 3000 times cycling at 1 A/g.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-22
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080294
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 295: Life Cycle Assessment and Costing of
Large-Scale Battery Energy Storage Integration in Lombok’s Power
Grid
Authors: Mohammad Hemmati, Navid Bayati, Thomas Ebel
First page: 295
Abstract: One of the main challenges of Lombok Island, Indonesia, is the significant disparity between peak load and base load, reaching 100 MW during peak hours, which is substantial considering the island’s specific energy dynamics. Battery energy storage systems provide power during peak times, alleviating grid stress and reducing the necessity for grid upgrades. By 2030, one of the proposed capacity development scenarios on the island involves deploying large-scale lithium-ion batteries to better manage the integration of solar generation. This paper focuses on the life cycle assessment and life cycle costing of a lithium iron phosphate large-scale battery energy storage system in Lombok to evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of this battery development scenario. This analysis considers a cradle-to-grave model and defines 10 environmental and 4 economic midpoint indicators to assess the impact of battery energy storage system integration with Lombok’s grid across manufacturing, operation, and recycling processes. From a life cycle assessment perspective, the operation subsystem contributes most significantly to global warming, while battery manufacturing is responsible for acidification, photochemical ozone formation, human toxicity, and impacts on marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Recycling processes notably affect freshwater due to their release of 4.69 × 10−4 kg of lithium. The life cycle costing results indicate that over 85% of total costs are associated with annualized capital costs at a 5% discount rate. The levelized cost of lithium iron phosphate batteries for Lombok is approximately 0.0066, demonstrating that lithium-ion batteries are an economically viable option for Lombok’s 2030 capacity development scenario. A sensitivity analysis of input data and electricity price fluctuations confirms the reliability of our results within a 20% margin of error. Moreover, increasing electricity prices for battery energy storage systems in Lombok can reduce the payback period to 3.5 years.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-08-22
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10080295
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 8 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 217: Fault Diagnosis for Lithium-Ion Battery
Pack Based on Relative Entropy and State of Charge Estimation
Authors: Tian-E Fan, Fan Chen, Hao-Ran Lei, Xin Tang, Fei Feng
First page: 217
Abstract: Timely and accurate fault diagnosis for a lithium-ion battery pack is critical to ensure its safety. However, the early fault of a battery pack is difficult to detect because of its unobvious fault effect and nonlinear time-varying characteristics. In this paper, a fault diagnosis method based on relative entropy and state of charge (SOC) estimation is proposed to detect fault in lithium-ion batteries. First, the relative entropies of the voltage, temperature and SOC of battery cells are calculated by using a sliding window, and the cumulative sum (CUSUM) test is adopted to achieve fault diagnosis and isolation. Second, the SOC estimation of the short-circuit cell is obtained, and the short-circuit resistance is estimated for a quantitative analysis of the short-circuit fault. Furthermore, the effectiveness of our method is validated by multiple fault tests in a thermally coupled electrochemical battery model. The results show that the proposed method can accurately detect different types of faults and evaluate the short-circuit fault degree by resistance estimation. The voltage/temperature sensor fault is detected at 71 s/58 s after faults have occurred, and a short-circuit fault is diagnosed at 111 s after the fault. In addition, the standard error deviation of short-circuit resistance estimation is less than 0.12 Ω/0.33 Ω for a 5 Ω/10 Ω short-circuit resistor.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-21
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070217
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 218: Development of a Process for Direct
Recycling of Negative Electrode Scrap from Lithium-Ion Battery Production
on a Technical Scale and Its Influence on the Material Quality
Authors: Patrick Wiechers, Anna Hermann, Sofia Koob, Fabian Glaum, Marco Gleiß
First page: 218
Abstract: High production rates and the constant expansion of production capacities for lithium-ion batteries will lead to large quantities of production waste in the future. The desired achievement of a circular economy presupposes that such rejects could be recovered. This paper presents a two-staged process route that allows one to recover graphite and conductive carbon black from already coated negative electrode foils in a water-based and function-preserving manner, and it makes it directly usable as a particle suspension for coating new negative electrodes. In a first step, coating residues, which accumulate in production (as offcuts or rejects for example), are decoated in an aqueous ultrasonic bath. The ultrasonic bath also serves as a pre-thickener. As a result, high mass concentrations of active material can already be achieved in the water after the first process step. Water is then removed from the negative electrode suspension in a subsequent step by applying dynamic cross-flow filtration. With this unit operation, it is possible to concentrate the slurry residue to a solid content similar to that of the new electrode slurries used for coatings. An important criterion for the direct utilization of production waste is that the particle properties are affected as little as possible so that the suspension can be used directly for coating new films. This work presents the individual recycling process steps and their influence on the particle and slurry properties. The aim is to assess whether the recyclate is suitable for a coating of new negative electrodes and thus also for manufacturing batteries from 100% recycled material.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-21
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070218
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 219: Robust Online Estimation of State of Health
for Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Capacities under Dynamical Operation
Conditions
Authors: Xiaoxuan Wu, Jian Chen, Hu Tang, Ke Xu, Mingding Shao, Yu Long
First page: 219
Abstract: Lithium-ion batteries, as the main energy storage component of electric vehicles (EVs), play a crucial role in ensuring the safe and reliable operation of the battery systems through monitoring their state of health (SOH). However, temperature variations and battery aging have significant impacts on the internal parameters of lithium-ion batteries, and these changes directly correlate with the accuracy of battery SOH estimation. To address these issues, this paper proposes an estimation method for lithium-ion battery SOH that considers the impact of temperature. The method begins with reconstructing a second-order hybrid equivalent circuit model for lithium-ion batteries, through which an adaptive update rate for battery model parameters is designed. On this basis, a nonlinear observer for battery states is introduced by integrating filters to estimate SOH. The proposed method considers the impact of capacity in the design of the parameter adaptive update rate, enabling the capacity to be dynamically adjusted based on the actual state of the batteries. This reduces the cumulative error in the SOC observer and improves the modeling accuracy of battery models. Experimental results demonstrate that the method proposed in this paper exhibits exceptional performance in SOH estimation under different temperature conditions. The mean absolute error for SOH estimation does not exceed 0.5%, and the root mean square error does not exceed 0.2%. This method can significantly improve the estimation accuracy of SOH, providing a more efficient and accurate solution for battery management systems in EVs.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-22
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070219
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 220: Exploring Lithium-Ion Battery Degradation:
A Concise Review of Critical Factors, Impacts, Data-Driven Degradation
Estimation Techniques, and Sustainable Directions for Energy Storage
Systems
Authors: Tuhibur Rahman, Talal Alharbi
First page: 220
Abstract: Batteries play a crucial role in the domain of energy storage systems and electric vehicles by enabling energy resilience, promoting renewable integration, and driving the advancement of eco-friendly mobility. However, the degradation of batteries over time remains a significant challenge. This paper presents a comprehensive review aimed at investigating the intricate phenomenon of battery degradation within the realm of sustainable energy storage systems and electric vehicles (EVs). This review consolidates current knowledge on the diverse array of factors influencing battery degradation mechanisms, encompassing thermal stresses, cycling patterns, chemical reactions, and environmental conditions. The key degradation factors of lithium-ion batteries such as electrolyte breakdown, cycling, temperature, calendar aging, and depth of discharge are thoroughly discussed. Along with the key degradation factor, the impacts of these factors on lithium-ion batteries including capacity fade, reduction in energy density, increase in internal resistance, and reduction in overall efficiency have also been highlighted throughout the paper. Additionally, the data-driven approaches of battery degradation estimation have taken into consideration. Furthermore, this paper delves into the multifaceted impacts of battery degradation on the performance, longevity, and overall sustainability of energy storage systems and EVs. Finally, the main drawbacks, issues and challenges related to the lifespan of batteries are addressed. Recommendations, best practices, and future directions are also provided to overcome the battery degradation issues towards sustainable energy storage system.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-22
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070220
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 221: Extraction Strategies from Black Alloy
Leachate: A Comparative Study of Solvent Extractants
Authors: Namho Koo, Byungseon Kim, Hong-In Kim, Kyungjung Kwon
First page: 221
Abstract: Recycling spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is crucial to prevent environmental pollution and recover valuable metals. Traditional methods for recycling spent LIBs include hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy. Among these methods, solvent extraction can selectively extract valuable metals in spent LIB leachate. Meanwhile, spent LIBs that underwent pyrometallurgical treatment generate a so-called ‘black alloy’ of Ni, Co, Cu, and so on. These elements in the black alloy need to be separated by solvent extraction and there have been few studies on extracting valuable metals from black alloy. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the extraction behavior of elements in black alloy and optimize the solvent extraction process to recover valuable metals. In this paper, four types of organic extractants are used to extract metals from simulated black alloy leachate: di-(2ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (D2EHPA), bis-(2,4,4-trimethylpentyl) phosphinic acid (Cyanex272), 2-ethylhexyl phosphonic acid mono-2-ethylhexyl ester (PC88A), and neodecanoic acid (Versatic acid 10). Based on the pH isotherms, D2EHPA would be the most reasonable for Mn extraction and impurity removal. Cyanex 272 would be more suitable for Co separation than PC88A, and Versatic acid 10 is preferred for Cu extraction over other metals. In conclusion, the optimal combination of extractants is suggested for the recovery of valuable metals.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-23
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070221
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 222: Conductive Zinc-Based Metal–Organic
Framework Nanorods as Cathodes for High-Performance Zn-Ion Capacitors
Authors: Jinfeng Sun, Qian Zhang, Chanjuan Liu, Anning Zhang, Linrui Hou, Changzhou Yuan
First page: 222
Abstract: Zinc-ion capacitors (ZICs), combining the merits of both high-energy zinc-ion batteries and high-power supercapacitors, are known as high-potential electrochemical energy storage (EES) devices. However, the research on ZICs still faces many challenges because of the lack of appropriate cathode materials with robust crystal structures and rich channels for stable and fast Zn2+ ion transport. In this study, we synthesized a robust, conductive, two-dimensional metal–organic framework (MOF) material, zinc-benzenehexathiolate (Zn-BHT), and investigated its electrochemical performance for zinc storage. Zn2+ ions could insert into/extricate from the host structure with a high diffusion rate, enabling the Zn-BHT cathode to exhibit a surface-controlled charge storage mechanism. Due to its unique structure, Zn-BHT exhibited a good reversible discharge capacity approaching 90.4 mAh g−1 at 0.1 A g−1, as well as a desirable rate capability and good cycling performance. In addition, a ZIC device was fabricated using the Zn-BHT cathode and a polyaniline-derived porous carbon (PC) anode, which depicted a high working voltage of up to 1.8 V and a high energy density of ~37.2 Wh kg−1. This work shows that conductive MOFs are high-potential electrode materials for ZICs and provide new enlightenment for the development of electrode materials for EES devices.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-24
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070222
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 223: Hierarchically Porous Vanadium-Based
Cathode Materials for High-Performance Na-Ion Batteries
Authors: Kanakaraj Aruchamy, Subramaniyan Ramasundaram, Athinarayanan Balasankar, Sivasubramani Divya, Ling Fei, Tae Hwan Oh
First page: 223
Abstract: Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have emerged as a promising alternative to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in sectors requiring extensive energy storage. The abundant availability of sodium at a low cost addresses concerns associated with lithium, such as environmental contamination and limited availability. However, SIBs exhibit lower energy density and cyclic stability compared to LIBs. One of the key challenges in improving the performance of SIBs lies in the electrochemical properties of the cathode materials. Among the various cathodes utilized in SIBs, sodium vanadium phosphates (NVPs) and sodium vanadium fluorophosphates (NVPFs) are particularly advantageous. These vanadium-based cathodes offer high theoretical capacity and are cost-effective. Commercialization of SIBs with NVPF cathodes has already begun. However, the poor conductivity of these cathode materials leads to a short cycle life and inferior rate performance. Various synthesis methods have been explored to enhance the conductivity, including heteroatom doping (N, S, and Co), surface modification, the fabrication of porous nanostructures, and composite formation with conductive carbon materials. In particular, cathodes with interconnected hierarchical micro- and nano-porous morphologies have shown promise. This review focuses on the diverse synthesis methods reported for preparing hierarchically porous cathodes. With increased attention, particular emphasis has been placed on carbon composites of NVPs and NVPFs. Additionally, the synthesis of vanadium pentoxide-based cathodes is also discussed.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-24
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070223
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 224: Comparative Review of Thermal Management
Systems for BESS
Authors: Nixon Kerwa Mdachi, Chang Choong-koo
First page: 224
Abstract: The integration of renewable energy sources necessitates effective thermal management of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) to maintain grid stability. This study aims to address this need by examining various thermal management approaches for BESS, specifically within the context of Virtual Power Plants (VPP). It evaluates the effectiveness, safety features, reliability, cost-efficiency, and appropriateness of these systems for VPP applications. Among the various hybrid cooling options, two notably promising combinations are highlighted. First, the integration of heat pipes with phase change materials, which effectively conduct heat away from sources with minimal temperature differences, enabling swift heat transfer. Second, the combination of heat pipes with liquid passive cooling, which utilizes the efficient heat transfer properties of heat pipes and the steady cooling offered by liquid systems. This study offers recommendations for choosing the best thermal management system based on climate conditions and geographic location, thereby enhancing BESS performance and sustainability within VPPs.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-24
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070224
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 225: Enhanced Dendrite Resistance in Reversible
Electrochemical Pneumatic Batteries with Nanoimprinted Nanowire Anodes for
Jamming Robots
Authors: Junyu Ge, Yuchen Zhao, Yifan Wang, Hong Li
First page: 225
Abstract: Traditional electric robots often rely on heavy gear units or expensive force–torque sensors, whereas pneumatic robots offer a cost-effective and simple alternative. However, their dependence on noisy and bulky pneumatic systems, such as compressed air technology, limits their portability and adaptability. To overcome these challenges, we have developed a reversible electrochemical pneumatic battery (REPB) that is compact, noise-free, energy-efficient, and portable. This innovative REPB, principled by the electrochemical redox reactions of zinc–air batteries, can simultaneously supply both electric and pneumatic power, either positive or negative pressure. Its modular, multi-stack structure allows for the easy customization of power output and capacity to suit various applications. We demonstrate the utility of REPB through its application in jamming robots, such as a novel soft yet robust gripper that merges the strengths of hard and soft grippers, enabling universal robotic gripping. This work presents a groundbreaking approach to powering devices that require pneumatic support.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-24
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070225
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 226: Joint Concern over Battery Health and
Thermal Degradation in the Cruise Control of Intelligently Connected
Electric Vehicles Using a Model-Assisted DRL Approach
Authors: Xiangheng Cheng, Xin Chen
First page: 226
Abstract: Eco-driving aims to enhance vehicle efficiency by optimizing speed profiles and driving patterns. However, ensuring safe following distances during eco-driving can lead to excessive use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), causing accelerated battery wear and potential safety concerns. This study addresses this issue by proposing a novel, multi-physics-constrained cruise control strategy for intelligently connected electric vehicles (EVs) using deep reinforcement learning (DRL). Integrating a DRL framework with an electrothermal model to estimate unmeasurable states, this strategy simultaneously manages battery degradation and thermal safety while maintaining safe following distances. Results from hardware-in-the-loop simulation testing demonstrated that this approach reduced overall driving costs by 18.72%, decreased battery temperatures by 4 °C to 8 °C in high-temperature environments, and reduced state-of-health (SOH) degradation by up to 46.43%. These findings highlight the strategy’s superiority in convergence efficiency, battery thermal safety, and cost reduction compared to existing methods. This research contributes to the advancement of eco-driving practices, ensuring both vehicle efficiency and battery longevity.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-25
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070226
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 227: Utilizing Electronic Resistance Measurement
for Tailoring Lithium-Ion Battery Cathode Formulations
Authors: Seidl, Thieme, Frey, Nikolowski, Michaelis
First page: 227
Abstract: Cathode formulation, which describes the amount of cathode active material (CAM), conductive additives (CAs), and binder within a cathode compound, is decisive for the performance metrics of lithium-ion battery (LIB) cells. The direct measurement of electronic resistance can be an enabler for more time- and cost-efficient cathode formulation improvements. Within this work, we correlate the electronic resistance with the electrochemical performance of cathodes. Two different high Nickel NCM cathode materials and numerous CAs are used to validate the findings. A detailed look into the resistance reduction potential of carbon black (CB) and single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) and their mixtures is made. Finally, an impact estimation of cathode formulation changes on LIB key performance factors, such as energy density and cost, is shown.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-25
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070227
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 228: Optimal Battery Energy Storage Dispatch for
the Day-Ahead Electricity Market
Authors: Julio Gonzalez-Saenz, Victor Becerra
First page: 228
Abstract: This work presents an innovative application of optimal control theory to the strategic scheduling of battery storage in the day-ahead electricity market, focusing on enhancing profitability while factoring in battery degradation. This study incorporates the effects of battery degradation on the dynamics in the optimisation framework. Considering this cost in economic analysis and operational strategies is essential to optimise long-term performance and economic viability. Neglecting degradation costs can lead to suboptimal operation and dispatch strategies. We employ a continuous-time representation of the dynamics, in contrast with many other studies that use a discrete-time approximation with rather coarse intervals. We adopt an equivalent circuit model coupled with empirical degradation parameters to simulate a battery cell’s behaviour and degradation mechanisms with good support from experimental data. Utilising direct collocation methods with mesh refinement allows for precise numerical solutions to the complex, nonlinear dynamics involved. Through a detailed case study of Belgium’s day-ahead electricity market, we determine the optimal charging and discharging schedules under varying objectives: maximising net revenues, maximising profits considering capacity degradation, and maximising profits considering both capacity degradation and internal resistance increase due to degradation. The results demonstrate the viability of our approach and underscore the significance of integrating degradation costs into the market strategy for battery operators, alongside its effects on the battery’s dynamic behaviour. Our methodology extends previous work by offering a more comprehensive model that empirically captures the intricacies of battery degradation, including a fine and adaptive time domain representation, focusing on the day-ahead market, and utilising accurate direct methods for optimal control. This paper concludes with insights into the potential of optimal control applications in energy markets and suggestions for future research avenues.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-25
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070228
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 229: Attention Mechanism-Based Neural Network
for Prediction of Battery Cycle Life in the Presence of Missing Data
Authors: Yixing Wang, Benben Jiang
First page: 229
Abstract: As batteries become widespread applications across various domains, the prediction of battery cycle life has attracted increasing attention. However, the intricate internal mechanisms of batteries pose challenges to achieving accurate battery lifetime prediction, and the inherent patterns within temporal data from battery experiments are often elusive. Meanwhile, the commonality of missing data in real-world battery usage further complicates accurate lifetime prediction. To address these issues, this article develops a self-attention-based neural network (NN) to precisely forecast battery cycle life, leveraging an attention mechanism that proficiently manages time-series data without the need for recurrent frameworks and adeptly handles the data-missing scenarios. Furthermore, a two-stage training approach is adopted, where certain network hyperparameters are fine-tuned in a sequential manner to enhance training efficacy. The results show that the proposed self-attention-based NN approach not only achieves superior predictive precision compared with the benchmarks including Elastic Net and CNN-LSTM but also maintains resilience against missing-data scenarios, ensuring reliable battery lifetime predictions. This work highlights the superior performance of utilizing attention mechanism for battery cycle life prognostics.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-26
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070229
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 230: Ni3S2@NiMo-LDH Composite for Flexible
Hybrid Capacitors
Authors: Qi He, Xiang Wu
First page: 230
Abstract: Ni3S2 is a kind of transition metal sulfide (TMD) with excellent electrical conductivity and electrochemical activity. To further enhance the specific capacity of Ni3S2-based supercapacitors, we synthesize several nanosheet-decorated Ni3S2@NiMo-LDH nanostructures by a combination of hydrothermal and electrodeposition processes. The mesoporous structure provides a large number of electroactive sites, which shortens the charge transfer distance and increases the specific surface area of electrode materials. The assembled asymmetric supercapacitor shows an energy density of 62.8 W h kg−1 at 2701.6 W kg−1 and long-term cycling stability.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-26
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070230
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 231: Stress Analysis of Electrochemical and
Force-Coupling Model for Ternary Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Wei Shi, Ruofan Xu, Changjiang Han, Bingxiang Sun, Jin Chai, Jiachang Liu, Xuewen Jiao, Jiale Xiong, Yinghao Li
First page: 231
Abstract: The mechanical pressure that arises from the external structure of the automotive lithium battery module and its fixed devices can give rise to the concentration and damage of the internal stress inside the battery and increase the risks of battery degradation and failure. Commercial batteries cannot be disassembled, and the diffusion stress distribution at different times during discharge is notoriously difficult to determine. This paper, therefore, establishes the electrochemical force-coupling model based on the electrochemical and diffusion mechanics principles of batteries and studies the internal stress distribution of the battery under the diffusion stress of the electrode-material level and external pressure. Mainly driven by the electrochemical potential of the electrode particle diffusion stress stemming from the lithium-concentration difference inside and outside the particles, rupture is more likely to occur at the surface of the negative-electrode active particle at the end of discharge or the beginning of charging, as shown in simulation analysis. The variation in the volume of electrode material also leads to different stress and strain inside different areas, with the order of strain and stress being negative active material > negative collector fluid > positive active material > positive fluid. Therefore, huge stress and deformation will first cause the negative active particles to deviate from the fluid gradually and squeeze the diaphragm, resulting in mechanical failure accordingly.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-27
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070231
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 232: The Suppression Effect of Water Mist
Released at Different Stages on Lithium-Ion Battery Flame Temperature,
Heat Release, and Heat Radiation
Authors: Bin Miao, Jiangfeng Lv, Qingbiao Wang, Guanzhang Zhu, Changfang Guo, Guodong An, Jianchun Ou
First page: 232
Abstract: Thermal runaway (TR) is a serious thermal disaster that occurs in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) under extreme conditions and has long been an obstacle to their further development. Water mist (WM) is considered to have excellent cooling capacity and is widely used in the field of fire protection. When used in TR suppression, WM also exhibits strong fire-extinguishing and anti-re-ignition abilities. Therefore, it has received widespread attention and research interest among scholars. However, most studies have focused on the cooling rate and suppression effect of TR propagation, and few have mentioned the effect of WM on flame heat transfer, which is a significant index in TR propagation suppression. This study has explored the suppression effect of WM released at different TR stages and has analyzed flame temperature, heat release, and heat radiation under WM conditions. Results show that the flame extinguishing duration for WM under different TR stages was different. WM could directly put out the flame within several seconds of being released when SV opened, 3 min after SV opening and when TR ended, and 3 min for WM when TR was triggered. Moreover, the heat radiation of the flame in relation to the battery QE could be calculated, and the case of WM released 3 min after SV opening exhibited the greatest proportion of heat radiation cooling η (with a value of 88.4%), which was same for the specific cooling capacity of WM Qm with a value of 1.7 × 10−3 kJ/kg. This is expected to provide a novel focus for TR suppression in LIBs.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-28
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070232
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 233: A Practical Methodology for Real-Time
Adjustment of Kalman Filter Process Noise for Lithium Battery
State-of-Charge Estimation
Authors: Cynthia Thamires da Silva, Bruno Martin de Alcântara Dias, Rui Esteves Araújo, Eduardo Lorenzetti Pellini, Armando Antônio Maria Laganá
First page: 233
Abstract: The methodology presented in this work allows for the creation of a real-time adjustment of Kalman Filter process noise for lithium battery state-of-charge estimation. This work innovates by creating a methodology for adjusting the process (Q) and measurement (R) Kalman Filter noise matrices in real-time. The filter algorithm with this adaptative mechanism achieved an average accuracy of 99.56% in real tests by comparing the estimated battery voltage and measured battery voltage. A cell-balancing strategy was also implemented, capable of guaranteeing the safety and efficiency of the battery pack in all conducted tests. This work presents all the methods, equations, and simulations necessary for the development of a battery management system and applies the system in a practical, real environment. The battery management system hardware and firmware were developed, evaluated, and validated on a battery pack with eight LiFePO4 cells, achieving excellent performance on all conducted tests.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-28
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070233
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 234: Estimation Procedure for the Degradation of
a Lithium-Ion Battery Pack
Authors: Andrenacci, Pasquali, Vellucci, Venanzoni
First page: 234
Abstract: This paper proposes a test procedure for evaluating the degradation of cells in a battery pack. The test can be performed using only the charger’s converters and the battery management system (BMS) without requiring sophisticated instrumentation. The method circumvents the difficulties related to the evaluation of derivative quantities for estimating the state of health (SOH) using integral quantities in the evaluation. The method introduces a 'degradation function' that is calculated with respect to the reference performance of pristine cells. The procedure was applied to the JuiceRoll Race Edition system, an innovative electric vehicle (EV) DC charger with internal storage, made in ENEL X and used during the MotoE championship races. Using this procedure, the degradation of performance in individual groups of cells composing the battery pack was quantified in comparison to the reference group. The procedure helps identify modules that have aged too early or show reliability issues. The method is mature for field operational applications.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-28
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070234
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 235: Study on the Preventive Effect of Au/CeO2
on Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Runaway Caused by Overcharging
Authors: Tian Zhou, Jie Sun, Jigang Li, Shouping Wei, Fan Zhang, Jing Chen
First page: 235
Abstract: In this study, a flower-like Au/CeO2 supported catalyst composite anode was prepared to explore its impact on thermal runaway triggered by overcharging and flame. Through structural and performance characterization, it was found that the catalyst has a high specific surface area and good CO catalytic oxidation capability, with a CO removal rate higher than 99.97% at room temperature. Through electrical performance testing, it was discovered that, compared to batteries without the catalyst, batteries using the composite anode did not exhibit significant capacity degradation. In overcharge testing, the catalyst prolonged the voltage rise time and peak voltage occurrence time of the battery. In thermal runaway testing, the addition of the catalyst delayed the detection time of CO and significantly reduced the concentration of thermal runaway products, especially the peak concentration and integrated concentration of CO, demonstrating its effectiveness in reducing thermal runaway products. Therefore, this study provides a new approach for improving the safety of lithium-ion batteries. The catalyst exhibits good performance in reducing toxic gases generated after thermal runaway and delaying the occurrence of thermal runaway, providing strong support for the safe application of lithium-ion batteries.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-28
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070235
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 236: Single-Use Vape Batteries: Investigating
Their Potential as Ignition Sources in Waste and Recycling Streams
Authors: Andrew Gausden, Burak Can Cerik
First page: 236
Abstract: This study investigates the potential link between the increasing prevalence of single-use vapes (SUVs) and the rising frequency of waste and recycling fires in the UK. Incorrectly discarded Li-ion cells from SUVs can suffer mechanical damage, potentially leading to thermal runaway (TR) depending on the cells’ state of charge (SOC). Industry-standard abuse tests (short-circuit and nail test) and novel impact and crush tests, simulating damage during waste management processes, were conducted on Li-ion cells from two market-leading SUVs. The novel tests created internal short circuits, generating higher temperatures than the short-circuit test required for product safety. The cells in used SUVs had an average SOC ≤ 50% and reached a maximum temperature of 131 °C, below the minimum ignition temperature of common waste materials. The high temperatures were short-lived and had limited heat transfer to adjacent materials. The study concludes that Li-ion cells in used SUVs at ≤50% SOC cannot generate sufficient heat and temperature to ignite common waste and recycling materials. These findings have implications for understanding the fire risk associated with discarded SUVs in waste management facilities.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-01
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070236
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 237: Edible Gelatin and Cosmetic Activated
Carbon Powder as Biodegradable and Replaceable Materials in the Production
of Supercapacitors
Authors: Rodica-Cristina Negroiu, Cristina-Ioana Marghescu, Irina-Bristena Bacis, Madalina-Irina Burcea, Andrei Drumea, Laurentiu Dinca, Ion Razvan Radulescu
First page: 237
Abstract: Environmental pollution is currently one of the most worrying factors that endangers human health. Therefore, attempts are being made to reduce it by various means. One of the most important sources of pollution in terms of the current RoHS and REACH directives is the pollution caused by the use of chemical products for the production of sources for the storage and generation of electricity. The aim of this article is therefore to develop supercapacitors made of biodegradable materials and to investigate their electrical performance. Among the materials used to make these electrodes, activated carbon was identified as the main material and different combinations of gelatin, calligraphy ink and glycerol were used as the binders. The electrolyte consists of a hydrogel based on gelatin, NaCl 20 wt% solution and glycerol. In the context of this research, the electrolyte, which has the consistency of a gel, fulfills the dual function of the separator in the structure of the manufactured cells. Due to its structure, the electrolyte has good mechanical properties and can easily block the contact between the two electrodes. Most of the materials used for the production of supercapacitor cells are interchangeable materials, which are mainly used in other application fields such as the food or cosmetics industries, but were also successfully used for the investigations carried out in this research. Thus, remarkable results were recorded regarding a specific capacitance between 101.46 F/g and 233.26 F/g and an energy density between 3.52 Wh/kg and 8.09 Wh/kg, with a slightly lower power density between 66.66 W/kg and 85.76 W/kg for the manufactured supercapacitors.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-01
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070237
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 238: Diffusion-Equation-Based Electrical
Modeling for High-Power Lithium Titanium Oxide Batteries
Authors: Haoze Chen, Weige Zhang, Caiping Zhang, Bingxiang Sun, Sijia Yang, Dinghong Chen
First page: 238
Abstract: Lithium titanium oxide (LTO) batteries offer superior performance compared to graphite-based anodes in terms of rapid charge/discharge capability and chemical stability, making them promising candidates for fast-charging and power-assist vehicle applications. However, commonly used battery models often struggle to accurately describe the current–voltage characteristics of LTO batteries, particularly before the charge/discharge cutoff conditions. In this work, a novel electrical model based on the solid-phase diffusion equation is proposed to capture the unique electrochemical phenomena arising from the diffusion mismatch between the positive and negative electrodes in high-power LTO batteries. The robustness of the proposed model is evaluated under various loading conditions, including constant current and dynamic current tests, and the results are compared against experimental data. The experimental results for LTO batteries exhibit remarkable alignment with the model estimation, demonstrating a maximum voltage error below 3%.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-03
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070238
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 239: Active Methods for the Equalization of a
Serially Connected Lithium-Ion Battery Pack: A Review
Authors: Longsheng Yuan, Tuo Ji, Lijun Zhang
First page: 239
Abstract: Traditional fuel vehicles are currently still the main means of transportation when people travel. It brings convenience to their travels, but it also causes energy shortages and environmental pollution. With the development of science and technology and the popularization of green environmental protection, electric vehicles have gradually entered people’s lives, greatly alleviating these problems. As a power supply device for electric vehicles, the performance of batteries directly affects various indicators of vehicles. Due to their long lifespan and high energy density, lithium-ion batteries are now the preferred source of power for electric vehicles. However, due to various factors in the manufacturing and operation of lithium-ion batteries, there are often differences among individual cells. The power balance and performance of a battery pack are closely related. Thus, battery equalization is an important standard for a battery management system to work normally, and it is also one of the various battery management application problems. This paper reviews battery equalization systems and various active equalization circuits and summarizes the working principle and research progress of each active equalization circuit. Then, various active equalization circuits are analyzed and compared, and dynamic equalization for a second-life battery is introduced to enrich this review of equalization technology. Finally, the above contents are summarized and prospected. In order to obtain the best outcomes, different equalization circuits need to be chosen for various situations.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-03
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070239
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 240: Sustainability Development of Stationary
Batteries: A Circular Economy Approach for Vanadium Flow Batteries
Authors: Nick Blume, Thomas Turek, Christine Minke
First page: 240
Abstract: In the literature, the hierarchy of value retention strategies (R-strategies) is utilized to describe the impacts on various circular economy (CE) factors. However, this approach is not suitable for batteries, such as the vanadium flow battery (VFB), due to its technical complexity. The presented model primarily focuses on VFBs, as a deep technical understanding is identified as a fundamental prerequisite for a comprehensive CE analysis. Based on the R-strategies, a new model called the dynamic multi-dimensional value retention strategy model (DDS) is developed accordingly. The DDS divides the R-strategies into three dimensions, as changes in the studied object each have a unilateral influence on the underlying dimensions. In addition, interactions among the R-strategies within the dimensions are observed. Moreover, the model enables the transparent and comprehensible examination of various CE objective factors. Through the model, future adjustments to CE for batteries can be analyzed and quantified. In particular, the analysis yields new insights into individual end-of-life (EoL) strategies, based on new findings regarding the VFB. Consequently, important new perspectives on the VFB are also illuminated. The DDS model is applicable to other complex technologies as well as simple product systems.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-03
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070240
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 241: Experimental Investigation of Thermal
Runaway Characteristics of Large-Format Li(Ni0.8Co0.1Mn0.1)O2 Battery
under Different Heating Powers and Areas
Authors: Jingru Huang, Zhuwei Fan, Chengshan Xu, Fachao Jiang, Xuning Feng
First page: 241
Abstract: This study experimentally investigates the effects of different heating powers and areas on the jet behavior and thermal runaway (TR) of 75 Ah LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 pouch lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in an open environment. TR, a critical safety concern for LIBs, can occur under overheating conditions. The TR behavior of LIBs was characterized by flame behavior, temperature characteristics, mass variation, jet dynamics, and residue formations. The results reveal that the heating power density primarily influences the time to initiate TR. Lower power densities extend the heating time and require higher energy to induce TR, thereby exerting a more considerable impact on the battery. The heating area predominantly affects the input energy and the extent of damage. Larger areas lead to more stable jet flames, consistent peak temperatures ranging between 1000 °C and 1300 °C, and mass loss ratios ranging from 44% to 53% compared to 43% to 47% for small-area heaters. These findings provide references for the safety design of battery assemblies and the prevention of TR propagation, contributing to the safer monitoring of LIBs.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-04
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070241
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 242: Digital Twin-Enhanced Control for Fuel Cell
and Lithium-Ion Battery Hybrid Vehicles
Authors: Xu Kang, Yujie Wang, Cong Jiang, Zonghai Chen
First page: 242
Abstract: With the development of lithium-ion batteries and fuel cells, the application of hybrid power systems is becoming more and more widespread. To better optimize the energy management problem of fuel cell hybrid systems, the accuracy of system modeling and simulation is very important. The hybrid system is formed by connecting the battery to the fuel cell through an active topology. Digital twin technology is applicable to the mapping of physical entities to each other with high interactivity and fast optimization iterations. In this paper, a relevant model based on mathematical logic is established by collecting actual operational data; subsequently, the accuracy of the model is verified by combining relevant operating conditions and simulating the model. Subsequently, a three-dimensional visualization model of a hybrid power system-based sightseeing vehicle and its operating environment was established using digital twin technology to improve the model simulation of the fuel cell hybrid power system. At low speeds, the simulation results of the hybrid power system-based sightseeing vehicle have a small error compared with the actual running state, and the accuracy of the data related to each internal subcomponent is high. In the simple interaction between the model display vehicle and the environment, the communication state can meet the basic requirements of the digital twin model because the amount of data to be transferred is small. This study makes a preliminary attempt at digital parallelism by combining mathematical logic with visualization models and can be used as a basis for the subsequent development of more mature digital twin models.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-05
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070242
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 243: Experimental Investigation on Thermal
Runaway of Lithium-Ion Batteries under Low Pressure and Low Temperature
Authors: Di Meng, Jingwen Weng, Jian Wang
First page: 243
Abstract: Understanding the thermal runaway mechanism of lithium-ion batteries under low pressure and low temperature is paramount for their application and transportation in the aviation industry. This work investigated the coupling effects of ambient pressure (100 kPa, 70 kPa, 40 kPa) and ambient temperature (−15 °C, 0 °C, 25 °C) on thermal behaviors in an altitude temperature chamber. The experimental results indicate that lowering ambient pressure and temperature could attenuate the thermal runaway intensity, which is mainly attributable to the reduction in oxygen concentration and the increase in heat loss. Such a dual effect leads to the maximum temperature decreasing from 811.9 °C to 667.5 °C, and the maximum temperature rate declines up to 2.6 times. Correspondingly, the whole thermal runaway process is deferred, the total time increases from 370 s to 503 s, and the time interval, Δt, from safety venting gains by 32.3% as the ambient pressure and temperature decrease. This work delivers an in-depth understanding of the thermal characteristics under low pressure and low temperature and provides meritorious guidance for the safety of cell transportation in aviation.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-06
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070243
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 244: Development of Printed Pouch Film and
Flexible Battery
Authors: Gyeongseok Oh, Snigdha Paramita Mantry, Jae Ho Sim, Hyeon Woo Cho, Mijin Won, Hwamok Park, Jiyoung Park, Juhwan Lee, Dong Soo Kim
First page: 244
Abstract: This study investigates the properties of various adhesives and assesses the effects of the coating and drying conditions of aluminum surface treatment agents on adhesion strength and chemical resistance. The adhesion between aluminum and the polymer film is improved through the application of a surface treatment agent to the aluminum surface. This study examines the initial adhesive strength of a manufactured pouch film with respect to the drying temperature and time and evaluates its adhesive strength in the presence of moisture. The results indicate that the residual moisture on the aluminum surface weakens the adhesive strength and significantly affects electrolyte resistance. A noticeable reduction in strength was observed after water spraying, when the drying temperature and time were relatively low during the initial strength measurement. Among the adhesives used for aluminum and CPP lamination, olefin adhesives exhibit less susceptibility to electrolyte effects and have higher adhesive strengths compared to urethane and ester adhesives. Leveraging these characteristics, flexible pouch cells were manufactured and their stability was evaluated. The results confirm that the flexible cells demonstrate excellent stability, exhibiting potential for application in wearable devices.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-08
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070244
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 245: Validity of LiPON Conductivity Determined
by Impedance Spectroscopy
Authors: Alexander Rudy, Alena Novozhilova, Julia Egorova
First page: 245
Abstract: A hypothesis that the generally accepted value of the LiPON conductivity should be attributed to the absorption and displacement currents is substantiated. The reason is a small contribution of the drift current due to field screening by the electric double layer. The basis for this assumption is the measurement of the LiPON absorption capacitance, according to which its dielectric constant is about 106. An alternative equivalent circuit containing a non-ideal absorption element is proposed and its impedance is calculated. It is shown that the Bode diagrams of the alternative circuit approximate the experimental curves well. Parameters and the magnitude of electric field screening are calculated based on a proposed model of a double electric layer. Considering the screening effect, the drift conductivity of LiPON is obtained, which is in good agreement with the data on lithium concentration and ion mobility.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-09
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070245
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 246: Fabrication of Cu2O/CuO Nanowires by
One-Step Thermal Oxidation of Flexible Copper Mesh for Supercapacitor
Applications
Authors: Mina-Ionela Morariu (Popescu), Mircea Nicolaescu, Iosif Hulka, Narcis Duţeanu, Corina Orha, Carmen Lăzău, Cornelia Bandas
First page: 246
Abstract: This study focuses on the growth of Cu2O/CuO nanowires by one-step thermal oxidation using a flexible copper mesh at oxidation temperatures in the range of 300 to 600 °C in a controlled atmosphere of mixed-flow Ar and O2 gases. Thermal oxidation is one of the simplest used methods to obtain nanowires on a metal surface, offering advantages such as low production costs and the ability to produce metal oxides on a large scale without the use of hazardous chemical compounds. The growth of metal oxides on a conductive substrate, forming metal/oxide structures, has proven to be an effective method for enhancing charge-transfer efficiency. The as-synthesized Cu/Cu2O/CuO (Nw) electrodes were structurally and morphologically characterized using techniques such as XRD and SEM/EDX analysis to investigate the structure modification and morphologies of the materials. The supercapacitor properties of the as-developed Cu/Cu2O/CuO (Nw) electrodes were then examined using cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) measurements, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The CV curves show that the Cu/Cu2O/CuO (Nw) structure acts as a positive electrode, and, at a scan rate of 5 mV s −1, the highest capacitance values reached 26.158 mF cm−2 for the electrode oxidized at a temperature of 300 °C. The assessment of the flexibility of the electrodes was performed at various bending angles, including 0°, 45°, 90°, 135°, and 180°. The GCD analysis revealed a maximum specific capacitance of 21.198 mF cm−2 at a low power density of 0.5 mA cm−2 for the oxidation temperature of 300 °C. The cycle life assessment of the all of the as-obtained Cu/Cu2O/CuO (Nw) electrodes over 500 cycles was performed by GCD analysis, which confirmed their electrochemical stability.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-10
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070246
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 247: EIS Ageing Prediction of Lithium-Ion
Batteries Depending on Charge Rates
Authors: Olivia Bruj, Adrian Calborean
First page: 247
Abstract: In the automotive industry, ageing mechanisms and diagnosis of Li-ion batteries depending on charge rate are of tremendous importance. With this in mind, we have investigated the lifetime degradation of lithium-ion battery cells at three distinct charging rates using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). Impedance spectra of high-energy Panasonic NCR18650B batteries have been analysed in light of two distinct approaches, namely the time-dependent evaluation of the Constant Phase Element (CPE), and the single parameter investigation of resonance frequency of the circuit. SOH percentages were used to validate our approach. By monitoring the CPE-Q parameter at different charge rates of 0.5 C, 1 C, and 1.5 C, respectively, we applied a degradation speed analysis, allowing us to predict a quantitative value of the LIBs. The results are in complete agreement with the resonance frequency single parameter analysis, in which quite a similar trend was obtained after the spline fitting.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-11
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070247
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 248: Holistic Testing and Characterization of
Commercial 18650 Lithium-Ion Cells
Authors: Nicolò Zatta, Bernardo De Cesaro, Enrico Dal Cin, Gianluca Carraro, Giovanni Cristofoli, Andrea Trovò, Andrea Lazzaretto, Massimo Guarnieri
First page: 248
Abstract: Reduced-order electrothermal models play a key role in the design and control of lithium-ion cell stacks, calling for accurate model parameter calibration. This paper presents a complete electrical and thermal experimental characterization procedure for the coupled modeling of cylindrical lithium-ion cells in order to implement them in a prototype Formula SAE hybrid racing car. The main goal of the tests is to determine how the cell capacity varies with the temperature and the discharge current to predict the open-circuit voltage of the cell and its entropic component. A simple approach for the characterization of the battery equivalent electrical circuit and a two-step thermal characterization method are also shown. The investigations are carried out on four commercial 18650 NMC lithium cells. The model was shown to predict the battery voltage with an RMS error lower than 20 mV and the temperature with an RMS error equal to 0.5 °C. The authors hope that this manuscript can contribute to the development of standardized characterization techniques for such cells while offering experimental data and validated models that can be used by researchers and BMS designers in different applications.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-11
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070248
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 249: Surface Reduction of Li2CO3 on LLZTO
Solid-State Electrolyte via Scalable Open-Air Plasma Treatment
Authors: Mohammed Sahal, Jinzhao Guo, Candace K. Chan, Nicholas Rolston
First page: 249
Abstract: We report on the use of an atmospheric pressure, open-air plasma treatment to remove Li2CO3 species from the surface of garnet-type tantalum-doped lithium lanthanum zirconium oxide (Li6.4La3Zr1.4Ta0.6O12, LLZTO) solid-state electrolyte pellets. The Li2CO3 layer, which we show forms on the surface of garnets within 3 min of exposure to ambient moisture and CO2, increases the interface (surface) resistance of LLZTO. The plasma treatment is carried out entirely in ambient and is enabled by use of a custom-built metal shroud that is placed around the plasma nozzle to prevent moisture and CO2 from reacting with the sample. After the plasma treatment, N2 compressed gas is flowed through the shroud to cool the sample and prevent atmospheric species from reacting with the LLZTO. We demonstrate that this approach is effective for removing the Li2CO3 from the surface of LLZTO. The surface chemistry is characterized with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to evaluate the effect of process parameters (plasma exposure time and shroud gas chemistry) on removal of the surface species. We also show that the open-air plasma treatment can significantly reduce the interface resistance. This platform demonstrates a path towards open-air processed solid-state batteries.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-12
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070249
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 250: Numerical Modeling of a Low-Cobalt
Authors: David Nadeau, Lionel Roué, François Allard
First page: 250
Abstract: All-solid-state batteries with a lithium negative electrode and a ceramic electrolyte are key toward high energy density. To ensure a safe, fast, accurate, and cost-effective development of this technology, the experimental methodology must be supported by the numerical modeling approach. This work proposes and describes an electrochemical model of a Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) and Ni-rich NMC-based lithium cell with a deformable lithium negative electrode. Simulations were computed using the finite element method at different operating conditions to demonstrate the scope of the modeling work. Discharge rate tests, deformation tracking, geometric defect investigation, and polarization decomposition are described. Theoretical validation of the mass balance, the stripping rate, the ohmic polarization, and the mesh deformation demonstrated the consistency of the volumetric deformation strategy. We demonstrated in this study a deformable modeling strategy, which was found to be useful for the electrostripping analysis of anodic geometry defects during discharge. Non-uniformity in the lithium stripping rate was found along the anodic interface with defects, and this non-uniformity was accentuated with a higher discharge rate. The cell’s discharge potential was decomposed by considering the equilibrium potential and the polarizations of the main components of the cell. This post-processing was found to be useful for the understanding of the cell’s behavior.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-16
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070250
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 251: Battery Scheduling Optimization and
Potential Revenue for Residential Storage Price Arbitrage
Authors: Nerijus Paulauskas, Vsevolod Kapustin
First page: 251
Abstract: Residential energy storage systems offer significant potential for price arbitrage by capitalizing on fluctuations in electricity prices throughout the day. This study investigates the potential revenue from optimal battery scheduling for residential storage in different north-western European electricity price zones during 2023. Using Nord Pool day-ahead prices, we applied an optimization model to determine the revenue for two types of batteries: 5 kW/10 kWh and 10 kW/10 kWh. The analysis considered battery capacity, charging and discharging efficiency, and maximum charge/discharge rates. Our results show notable variations in potential revenue across different regions, with the Baltic states demonstrating the highest revenue potential. The findings indicate that while 10 kW batteries can generate higher total revenue, 5 kW batteries are more efficient in terms of revenue per cycle. These regional disparities underscore the need for targeted incentives and policies to enhance the economic viability of residential energy storage. The research results provide valuable insights into optimizing residential battery storage for price arbitrage, offering guidance for consumers, policymakers, and energy providers to maximize economic benefits in various electricity markets.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-16
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070251
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 252: Comparative Cost Modeling of Battery Cell
Formats and Chemistries on a Large Production Scale
Authors: Natalia Soldan Cattani, Eduardo Noronha, Jessica Schmied, Moritz Frieges, Heiner Heimes, Achim Kampker
First page: 252
Abstract: As lithium-ion batteries increasingly become a cornerstone of the automotive sector, the importance of efficient and cost-effective battery production has become paramount. Even though electric vehicle battery cells are produced in three different geometries—cylindrical, prismatic, and pouch—no specific model exists to compare the manufacturing costs of producing cells with different geometries but similar performances. In this paper, we present a process-based cost model with a cell design functionality which enables design and manufacturing cost prediction of user-defined battery cells.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-16
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070252
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 253: Designing a Stable Alloy Interlayer on Li
Metal Anodes for Fast Charging of All-Solid-State Li Metal Batteries
Authors: Nicolas Delaporte, Alexis Perea, Steve Collin-Martin, Mireille Léonard, Julie Matton, Hendrix Demers, Daniel Clément, Vincent Gariépy, Wen Zhu
First page: 253
Abstract: The deposition of a thin LixSny alloy layer by plasma vapor deposition (PVD) on the surface of a Li foil is reported. The formation of a Li-rich alloy is confirmed by the volume expansion (up to 380%) of the layer and by the disappearance of metallic Sn peaks in the X-ray diffractogram. The layer has a much higher hardness than bare Li and can withstand aggressive cycling at 1C. Post-mortem scanning electron microscope observations revealed that the alloy layer remains intact even after fast cycling for hundreds of cycles. A concept of double modification by adding a thin ceramic/polymer layer deposited by a doctor blade on top of the LixSny layer was also reported to be efficient to reach long-term stability for 500 cycles at C/3. Finally, a post-treatment after Sn deposition consisting of a plasma cleaning of the LixSny alloy layer led to a strong improvement in the cycling performance at 1C. The surface is smoother and less oxidized after this treatment. The combination of a Li-rich alloy interlayer, the increase in hardness at the electrolyte/Li interface, and the absence of dissolution of the layer during cycling at high C-rates are reasons for such an improvement in electrochemical performance.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-17
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070253
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 254: Selective Separation of Lithium from
Leachate of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries by Zirconium
Phosphate/Polyacrylonitrile Composite: Leaching and Sorption Behavior
Authors: Baffa Haruna, Zhongyan Luo, Mujtaba Aminu Muhammad, Jinfeng Tang, Jukka Kuva, Risto Koivula, Hongli Bao, Junhua Xu
First page: 254
Abstract: This study introduces a straightforward and effective amorphous ZrP/polyacrylonitrile composite ion exchange method for separating Li from the leachate of spent Li-ion batteries (NMC 111). The cathode materials were leached with a series of optimized experiments. The influence of operating variables, including the H2SO4 concentration, temperature, H2O2 concentration, and pulp density, on leaching efficiency was examined to determine the optimal conditions for sorption experiments. The leaching efficiencies of Li, Co, Ni, and Mn were found to be 99.9%, 99.5%, 98.8%, and 99.9%, respectively. Subsequently, batch sorption experiments were performed by using am-ZrP/PAN, including the determination of the effect of pH, sorption kinetics, and the sorption isotherm. The effect of pH on adsorption was examined in 1 mmol/L equimolar solutions of Li, Ni, Mn, and Co. Li was separated from Mn, Co, and Ni in the leaching liquor. The adsorbent for Mn, Co, and Ni sorption better fitted pseudo-second-order kinetics. High selectivity for Li was observed, even at the higher solution concentration of 15 mM Li, Ni, Co and Mn. In addition, the column loading process demonstrated selectivity for Li over Co, Ni, and Mn metal ions. The preliminary evaluation of the whole process with mass flow demonstrated that it would be feasible to achieve full separation and metal recovery by integrating a combined hydrometallurgical method in future studies. However, much work is still needed to develop a practical separation flowsheet.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-17
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070254
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 255: Environmental Aspects and Recycling of
Solid-State Batteries: A Comprehensive Review
Authors: Abniel Machín, María C. Cotto, Francisco Díaz, José Duconge, Carmen Morant, Francisco Márquez
First page: 255
Abstract: Solid-state batteries (SSBs) have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional lithium-ion batteries, with notable advantages in safety, energy density, and longevity, yet the environmental implications of their life cycle, from manufacturing to disposal, remain a critical concern. This review examines the environmental impacts associated with the production, use, and end-of-life management of SSBs, starting with the extraction and processing of raw materials, and highlights significant natural resource consumption, energy use, and emissions. A comparative analysis with traditional battery manufacturing underscores the environmental hazards of novel materials specific to SSBs. The review also assesses the operational environmental impact of SSBs by evaluating their energy efficiency and carbon footprint in comparison to conventional batteries, followed by an exploration of end-of-life challenges, including disposal risks, regulatory frameworks, and the shortcomings of existing waste management practices. A significant focus is placed on recycling and reuse strategies, reviewing current methodologies like mechanical, pyrometallurgical, and hydrometallurgical processes, along with emerging technologies that aim to overcome recycling barriers, while also analyzing the economic and technological challenges of these processes. Additionally, real-world case studies are presented, serving as benchmarks for best practices and highlighting lessons learned in the field. In conclusion, the paper identifies research gaps and future directions for reducing the environmental footprint of SSBs, underscoring the need for interdisciplinary collaboration to advance sustainable SSB technologies and contribute to balancing technological advancements with environmental stewardship, thereby supporting the transition to a more sustainable energy future.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-17
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070255
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 256: Role of Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene
Oxide in Electric Double-Layer Capacitors: A Systematic Review
Authors: Talia Tene, Stefano Bellucci, Marco Guevara, Paul Romero, Alberto Guapi, Lala Gahramanli, Salvatore Straface, Lorenzo S. Caputi, Cristian Vacacela Gomez
First page: 256
Abstract: The evolution of electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) has significantly benefited from advancements in graphene-based materials, particularly graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO). This systematic review consolidates and analyzes existing research on the roles of GO and rGO in enhancing the performance of EDLCs, focusing on synthesis methods, electrode fabrication, electrolytes, and performance metrics such as capacitance, energy density, and cycling stability. Following the PICOS and PRISMA frameworks, a comprehensive literature search was conducted across Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and IEEE Xplore, covering the period from 2010 to 2023. A total of 128 articles were initially identified, with 27 studies meeting the inclusion criteria after rigorous screening and full-text analysis. Key findings reveal that the incorporation of GO and rGO in EDLCs leads to significant improvements in specific capacitance, energy density, and cycling stability. Notable advancements include novel synthesis techniques and composite materials such as nitrogen-doped graphene, graphene/polyaniline hybrids, and various metal oxide–graphene composites, which exhibit superior electrochemical performance. However, challenges such as material scalability, environmental sustainability, and consistency in synthesis methods remain. This review stresses the great potential of GO and rGO in the development of high-performance EDLCs and highlights the need for continued research to address existing challenges and further optimize material properties and fabrication techniques.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-17
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070256
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 257: Optimization of the Shunt Currents and
Pressure Losses of a VRFB by Applying a Discrete PSO Algorithm
Authors: Decebal Aitor Ispas-Gil, Ekaitz Zulueta, Javier Olarte, Asier Zulueta, Unai Fernandez-Gamiz
First page: 257
Abstract: This paper presents an extensive study on the electrochemical, shunt currents, and hydraulic modeling of a vanadium redox flow battery of m stacks and cells per stack. The shunt currents model of the battery has been developed through the use of Kirchoff’s laws, taking into account the different design cases that can occur and enumerating the equations of nodes and meshes specifying them so that the software implementation can be performed in a direct way. The hydraulic model has been developed by numerical methods. These models are put to work simultaneously in order to simulate the behavior of a VRFB battery during charging and discharging, obtaining the pressure losses and shunt currents that occur in the battery. Using these models, and by using a PSO-type optimization algorithm, specifically designed for discrete variables, the battery design is optimized in order to minimize the round-trip efficiency losses due to pressure losses and shunt currents. In the optimization of the battery design, value is given to the number of stacks in which the total number of cells in the battery is distributed and the dimensions of the piping relative to both the stacks and the cells.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-19
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070257
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 258: Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Internal
Changes Due to Mechanical Loading
Authors: Maria Cortada-Torbellino, David Garcia Elvira, Abdelali El Aroudi, Hugo Valderrama-Blavi
First page: 258
Abstract: The growth of electric vehicles (EVs) has prompted the need to enhance the technology of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in order to improve their response when subjected to external factors that can alter their performance, thereby affecting their safety and efficiency. Mechanical abuse has been considered one of the major sources of LIB failure due to the changes it provokes in the structural integrity of cells. Therefore, this article aims to review the main factors that aggravate the effects of mechanical loading based on the results of different laboratory tests that subjected LIBs to abusive testing. The results of different cell types tested under different mechanical loadings have been gathered in order to assess the changes in LIB properties and the main mechanisms responsible for their failure and permanent damage. The main consequences of mechanical abuse are the increase in LIB degradation and the formation of events such as internal short circuits (ISCs) and thermal runways (TRs). Then, a set of standards and regulations that evaluate the LIB under mechanical abuse conditions are also reviewed.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-22
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070258
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 259: Fault Characterization for AC/DC
Distribution Networks Considering the Control Strategy of Photovoltaic and
Energy Storage Battery
Authors: Yubo Yuan, Juan Li, Pengpeng Lyu, Zhonghao Qian, Yunlong Jiang, Jiaming Wang
First page: 259
Abstract: In order to cope with the failure of existing fault analysis schemes for AC/DC distribution networks with a high proportion of distributed generations, this paper proposes a fault characteristic analysis method for AC/DC distribution networks that considers the influence of distributed generation control strategies. Firstly, a transient model for the AC/DC distribution network connected to distributed generations is built. Then, the fault characteristics of the AC/DC distribution network in different stages, such as the capacitor discharge stage, inductive renewal stage, and steady state stage, is analyzed. Finally, detailed simulation analysis is conducted using PSCAD/EMTDC to validate the effectiveness of the developed scheme by the superior approximation performance between simulated curves and calculated curves.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-07-22
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10070259
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 7 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 203: Correction: Mirandona-Olaeta et al. Ionic
Liquid-Laden Zn-MOF-74-Based Solid-State Electrolyte for Sodium Batteries.
Batteries 2023, 9, 588
Authors: Alexander Mirandona-Olaeta, Eider Goikolea, Senentxu Lanceros-Mendez, Arkaitz Fidalgo-Marijuan, Idoia Ruiz de Larramendi
First page: 203
Abstract: The authors wish to make the following corrections to their paper [...]
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-13
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060203
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 204: Recent Progress of Deep Learning Methods
for Health Monitoring of Lithium-Ion Batteries
Authors: Seyed Saeed Madani, Carlos Ziebert, Parisa Vahdatkhah, Sayed Khatiboleslam Sadrnezhaad
First page: 204
Abstract: In recent years, the rapid evolution of transportation electrification has been propelled by the widespread adoption of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as the primary energy storage solution. The critical need to ensure the safe and efficient operation of these LIBs has positioned battery management systems (BMS) as pivotal components in this landscape. Among the various BMS functions, state and temperature monitoring emerge as paramount for intelligent LIB management. This review focuses on two key aspects of LIB health management: the accurate prediction of the state of health (SOH) and the estimation of remaining useful life (RUL). Achieving precise SOH predictions not only extends the lifespan of LIBs but also offers invaluable insights for optimizing battery usage. Additionally, accurate RUL estimation is essential for efficient battery management and state estimation, especially as the demand for electric vehicles continues to surge. The review highlights the significance of machine learning (ML) techniques in enhancing LIB state predictions while simultaneously reducing computational complexity. By delving into the current state of research in this field, the review aims to elucidate promising future avenues for leveraging ML in the context of LIBs. Notably, it underscores the increasing necessity for advanced RUL prediction techniques and their role in addressing the challenges associated with the burgeoning demand for electric vehicles. This comprehensive review identifies existing challenges and proposes a structured framework to overcome these obstacles, emphasizing the development of machine-learning applications tailored specifically for rechargeable LIBs. The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies in this endeavor is pivotal, as researchers aspire to expedite advancements in battery performance and overcome present limitations associated with LIBs. In adopting a symmetrical approach, ML harmonizes with battery management, contributing significantly to the sustainable progress of transportation electrification. This study provides a concise overview of the literature, offering insights into the current state, future prospects, and challenges in utilizing ML techniques for lithium-ion battery health monitoring.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-13
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060204
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 205: A Novel Reaction Rate Parametrization
Method for Lithium-Ion Battery Electrochemical Modelling
Authors: Alain Goussian, Loïc Assaud, Issam Baghdadi, Cédric Nouillant, Sylvain Franger
First page: 205
Abstract: To meet the ever-growing worldwide electric vehicle demand, the development of advanced generations of lithium-ion batteries is required. To this end, modelling is one of the pillars for the innovation process. However, modelling batteries containing a large number of different mechanisms occurring at different scales remains a field of research that does not provide consensus for each particular model or approach. Parametrization as part of the modelling process appears to be one of the issues when it comes to building a high-fidelity model of a target cell. In this paper, a particular parameter identification is therefore discussed. Indeed, even if Butler–Volmer is a well-known equation in the electrochemistry field, identification of its reaction rate constant or exchange current density parameters is lacking in the literature. Thus, we discuss the process described in the literature and propose a new protocol that expects to overcome certain difficulties whereas the hypothesis of calculation and measurement maintains high sensitivity.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-14
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060205
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 206: A Deep Learning Approach for Online State
of Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Partial Constant
Current Charging Curves
Authors: Mano Schmitz, Julia Kowal
First page: 206
Abstract: The accurate state of health (SOH) estimation of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) during operation is crucial to ensure optimal performance, prolonging battery life and preventing unexpected failure or safety hazards. This work presents a storage- and performance-optimised deep learning approach to estimate the capacity-based SOH of LIBs using raw sensor data from partial charging curves under constant current condition. The proposed model is based on a combination of a one-dimensional convolutional and long short-term memory neural network, and processes time, voltage, and incremental capacity of partial charging curves as time series. The model is cross-validated on different ageing scenarios, reaching an overall MAE = 0.418% and RMSE = 0.531%, promising an accurate SOH estimation of LIBs under varying usage and environmental conditions in a real-world application.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-14
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060206
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 207: Low-Temperature-Tolerant Aqueous Proton
Battery with Porous Ti3C2Tx MXene Electrode and Phosphoric Acid
Electrolyte
Authors: Jun Zhu, Xude Li, Bingqing Hu, Shanhai Ge, Jiang Xu
First page: 207
Abstract: Supercapacitors have long suffered from low energy density. Here, we present a high-energy, high-safety, and temperature-adaptable aqueous proton battery utilizing two-dimensional Ti3C2Tx MXenes as anode materials. Additionally, our work aims to provide further insights into the energy storage mechanism of Ti3C2Tx in acid electrolytes. Our findings reveal that the ion transport mechanism of Ti3C2Tx remains consistent in both H2SO4 and H3PO4 electrolytes. The mode of charge transfer depends on its terminal groups. Specifically, the hydrogen bonding network formed by water molecules adsorbed by hydroxyl functional groups under van der Waals forces enables charge transfer in the form of naked H+ through the Grotthuss mechanism. In contrast, the hydrophobic channel formed by oxygen and halogen terminal groups facilitates rapid charge transfers in the form of hydronium ion via the vehicle mechanism, owing to negligible interfacial effect. Herein, we propose an aqueous proton battery based on porous hydroxy-poor Ti3C2Tx MXene anode and pre-protonated CuII[FeIII(CN)6]2/3∙4H2O (H-TBA) cathode in a 9.5 M H3PO4 solution. This proton battery operates through hydrated H+/H+ transfer, leading to good electrochemical performance, as evidenced by 26 Wh kg−1 energy density and 162 kW kg−1 power density at room temperature and an energy density of 17 Wh kg−1 and a power density of 7.4 kW kg−1 even at −60 °C.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-14
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060207
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 208: State of Charge Estimation of Lithium-ion
Batteries Based on Online OCV Curve Construction
Authors: Xuemei Wang, Ruiyun Gong, Zhao Yang, Longyun Kang
First page: 208
Abstract: The open-circuit voltage (OCV) curve has a significant influence on the accuracy of the state of charge (SOC) estimation based on equivalent circuit models (ECMs). However, OCV curves are tested through offline experiments and are hard to be very accurate because they constantly change with the test method’s ambient temperature and aging status. Recently, researchers have attempted to improve the accuracy of OCV curves by increasing the volume of sample data or updating/reconstructing the curve combined with practical operation data. Still, prior offline tests are essential, and experimental errors inevitably exist. Consequently, a SOC estimation method without any offline OCV tests might be an efficient route to improve the accuracy of SOC. According to this idea, this paper presents a novel method for SOC estimation, which is based on online OCV curve construction. Meanwhile, a stepwise multi-timescale parameter identification algorithm is designed to improve the interpretability and precision of the estimated ECM parameters. The results demonstrate that the maximum SOC estimation error is only 0.05% at 25 °C, indicating good robustness under various ambient temperatures and operational conditions.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-16
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060208
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 209: Study of the Suitability of Corncob Biochar
as Electrocatalyst for Zn–Air Batteries
Authors: Nikolaos Soursos, Theodoros Kottis, Vasiliki Premeti, John Zafeiropoulos, Katerina Govatsi, Lamprini Sygellou, John Vakros, Ioannis D. Manariotis, Dionissios Mantzavinos, Panagiotis Lianos
First page: 209
Abstract: There has been a recent increasing interest in Zn–air batteries as an alternative to Li-ion batteries. Zn–air batteries possess some significant advantages; however, there are still problems to solve, especially related to the tuning of the properties of the air–cathode which should carry an inexpensive but efficient bifunctional oxygen reduction (ORR) and oxygen evolution (OER) reaction electrocatalyst. Biochar can be an alternative, since it is a material of low cost, it exhibits electric conductivity, and it can be used as support for transition metal ions. Although there is a significant number of publications on biochars, there is a lack of data about biochar from raw biomass rich in hemicellulose, and biochar with a small number of heteroatoms, in order to report the pristine activity of the carbon phase. In this work, activated biochar has been made by using corncobs. The biomass was first dried and minced into small pieces and pyrolyzed. Then, it was mixed with KOH and pyrolyzed for a second time. The final product was characterized by various techniques and its electroactivity as a cathode was determined. Physicochemical characterization revealed that the biochar had a hierarchical pore structure, moderate surface area of 92 m2 g−1, carbon phase with a relatively low sp2/sp3 ratio close to one, and a limited amount of N and S, but a high number of oxygen groups. The graphitization was not complete while the biochar had an ordered structure and contained significant O species. This biochar was used as an electrocatalyst for ORR and OER in Zn–air batteries where it demonstrated a satisfactory performance. More specifically, it reached an open-circuit voltage of about 1.4 V, which was stable over a period of several hours, with a short-circuit current density of 142 mA cm−2 and a maximum power density of 55 mW cm−2. Charge–discharge cycling of the battery was achieved between 1.2 and 2.1 V for a constant current of 10 mA. These data show that corncob biochar demonstrated good performance as an electrocatalyst in Zn–air batteries, despite its low specific surface and low sp2/sp3 ratio, owing to its rich oxygen sites, thus showing that electrocatalysis is a complex phenomenon and can be served by biochars of various origins.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-16
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060209
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 210: Effects of Electrolyte Solvent Composition
on Solid Electrolyte Interphase Properties in Lithium Metal Batteries:
Focusing on Ethylene Carbonate to Ethyl Methyl Carbonate Ratios
Authors: Paul Maldonado Nogales, Sangyup Lee, Seunga Yang, Soon-Ki Jeong
First page: 210
Abstract: This study investigated the influence of variations in the mixing ratio of ethylene carbonate (EC) to ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC) on the composition and effectiveness of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) in lithium-metal batteries. The SEI is crucial for battery performance, as it prevents continuous electrolyte decomposition and inhibits the growth of lithium dendrites, which can cause internal short circuits leading to battery failure. Although the properties of the SEI largely depend on the electrolyte solvent, the influence of the EC:EMC ratio on SEI properties has not yet been elucidated. Through electrochemical testing, ionic conductivity measurements, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, the formation of Li2CO3, LiF, and organolithium compounds on lithium surfaces was systematically analyzed. This study demonstrated that the EC:EMC ratio significantly affected the SEI structure, primarily owing to the promotion of the formation of a denser SEI layer. Specifically, the ratios of 1:1 and 1:3 facilitated a uniform distribution and prevalence of Li2CO3 and LiF throughout the SEI, thereby affecting cell performance. Thus, precise control of the EC:EMC ratio is essential for enhancing the mechanical robustness and electrochemical stability of the SEI, thereby providing valuable insights into the factors that either enhance or impede effective SEI formation.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-16
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060210
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 211: Experiment-Based Determination of Optimal
Parameters in Constant Temperature–Constant Voltage Charging
Technique for Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Taguchi Method
Authors: Yu-Shan Cheng, Su-Fen Lin, Kun-Che Ho
First page: 211
Abstract: Charging methods significantly affect the performance and lifespan of lithium-ion batteries. Investigating charging techniques is crucial for optimizing the charging time, charging efficiency, and cycle life of the battery cells. This study introduces a real-time charging monitoring platform based on LabVIEW, enabling observation of battery parameters such as voltage, current, and temperature. The proposed system allows the precise control of charging parameters via a user-friendly interface. Utilizing a programmable DC power supply, it delivers specific charging waveforms, while data acquisition instruments record temperature changes. Key performance metrics, including charging time, efficiency, and temperature rise, are analyzed. Moreover, this paper conducts in-depth research on the constant temperature–constant voltage (CT-CV) charging technique and applies the Taguchi method to identify key parameter configurations that achieve the objectives of the shortest charging time, highest charging efficiency, and lowest average temperature rise. A comprehensive evaluation compares the optimized CT-CV method with conventional constant current–constant voltage (CC-CV) charging. The results demonstrate a 10.7% reduction in charging time compared to the 1C CC-CV method, indicating the efficacy of CT-CV in shortening charging duration while managing temperature rise.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-18
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060211
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 212: Optimal Placement and Capacity of BESS and
PV in EV Integrated Distribution Systems: The Tenth Feeder of Phitsanulok
Substation Case Study
Authors: Sirote Khunkitti, Natsawat Pompern, Suttichai Premrudeepreechacharn, Apirat Siritaratiwat
First page: 212
Abstract: Installing a battery energy storage system (BESS) and renewable energy sources can significantly improve distribution network performance in several aspects, especially in electric vehicle (EV)-integrated systems because of high load demands. With the high costs of the BESS and PV, optimal placement and capacity of them must be carefully considered. This work proposes a solution for determining the optimal placement and capacity of a BESS and photovoltaic (PV) in a distribution system by considering EV penetrations. The objective function is to reduce system costs, comprising installation, replacement, and operation and maintenance costs of the BESS and PV. The replacement cost is considered over 20 years, and the maintenance and operation costs incurred in the distribution system include transmission line loss, voltage regulation, and peak demand costs. To solve the problem, two metaheuristic algorithms consisting of particle swarm optimization (PSO) and the African vulture optimization algorithm (AVOA) are utilized. The tenth feeder of Phitsanulok substation 1 (PLA10), Thailand, which is a 91-bus distribution network, is tested to evaluate the performance of the proposed approach. The results obtained from the considered algorithms are compared based on distribution system performance enhancement, payback period, and statistical analysis. It is found from the simulation results that the installation of the BESS and PV could significantly minimize system cost, improve the voltage profile, reduce transmission line loss, and decrease peak demand. The voltage deviation could be reduced by 86%, line loss was reduced by 0.78 MW, and peak demand could be decreased by 5.706 MW compared to the case without BESS and PV installations.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-18
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060212
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 213: Water/N,N-Dimethylacetamide-Based Hybrid
Electrolyte and Its Application to Enhanced Voltage Electrochemical
Capacitors
Authors: Aleksandra A. Mroziewicz, Karolina Solska, Grażyna Zofia Żukowska, Magdalena Skunik-Nuckowska
First page: 213
Abstract: The growing interest in hybrid (aqueous–organic) electrolytes for electrochemical energy storage is due to their wide stability window, improved safety, and ease of assembly that does not require a moisture-free atmosphere. When it comes to applications in electrochemical capacitors, hybrid electrolytes are expected to fill the gap between high-voltage organic systems and their high discharge rate aqueous counterparts. This article discusses the potential applicability of aqueous–organic electrolytes utilizing water/N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) solvent mixture, and sodium perchlorate as a source of charge carriers. The hydrogen bond formation between H2O and DMAc (mole fraction xDMAc = 0.16) is shown to regulate the original water and cation solvation structure, thus reducing the electrochemical activity of the primary aqueous solution both in the hydrogen (HER) and oxygen (OER) evolution reactions region. As a result, an electrochemical stability window of 3.0 V can be achieved on titanium electrodes while providing reasonable ionic conductivity of 39 mS cm−1 along with the electrolyte’s flame retardant and anti-freezing properties. Based on the diagnostic electrochemical studies, the operation conditions for carbon/carbon capacitors have been carefully optimized to adjust the potential ranges of the individual electrodes to the electrochemical stability region. The system with the appropriate electrode mass ratio (m+/m− = 1.51) was characterized by a wide operating voltage of 2.0 V, gravimetric energy of 13.2 Wh kg−1, and practically a 100% capacitance retention after 10,000 charge–discharge cycles. This translates to a significant rise in the maximum energy of 76% when compared to the aqueous counterpart. Additionally, reasonable charge–discharge rates and anti-freeze properties of the developed electrolyte enable application in a broad temperature range down to −20 °C, which is demonstrated as well.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-19
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060213
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 214: Rule-Based Operation Mode Control Strategy
for the Energy Management of a Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
Authors: Jokin Uralde, Oscar Barambones, Asier del Rio, Isidro Calvo, Eneko Artetxe
First page: 214
Abstract: Hydrogen, due to its high energy density, stands out as an energy storage method for the car industry in order to reduce the impact of the automotive sector on air pollution and global warming. The fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) emerges as a modification of the electric car by adding a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) to the battery pack and electric motor, that is capable of converting hydrogen into electric energy. In order to control the energy flow of so many elements, an optimal energy management system (EMS) is needed, where rule-based strategies represent the smallest computational burden and are the most widely used in the industry. In this work, a rule-based operation mode control strategy for the EMS of an FCEV validated by different driving cycles and several tests at the strategic points of the battery state of charge (SOC) is proposed. The results obtained in the new European driving cycle (NEDC) show the 12 kW battery variation of 2% and a hydrogen consumption of 1.2 kg/100 km compared to the variation of 1.42% and a consumption of 1.08 kg/100 km obtained in the worldwide harmonized light-duty test cycle (WLTC). Moreover, battery tests have demonstrated the optimal performance of the proposed EMS strategy.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-19
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060214
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 215: Development of a Fast Running Equivalent
Circuit Model with Thermal Predictions for Battery Management Applications
Authors: Vijayakanthan Damodaran, Thiyagarajan Paramadayalan, Diwakar Natarajan, Ramesh Kumar C, P. Rajesh Kanna, Dawid Taler, Tomasz Sobota, Jan Taler, Magdalena Szymkiewicz, Mohammed Jalal Ahamed
First page: 215
Abstract: Equivalent circuit modelling (ECM) is a powerful tool to study the dynamic and non-linear characteristics of Li-ion cells and is widely used for the development of the battery management system (BMS) of electric vehicles. The dynamic parameters described by the ECM are used by the BMS to estimate the battery state of charge (SOC), which is crucial for efficient charging/discharging, range calculations, and the overall safe operation of electric vehicles. Typically, the ECM approach represents the dynamic characteristics of the battery in a mathematical form with a limited number of unknown parameters. Then, the parameters are calculated from voltage and current information of the lithium-ion cell obtained from controlled experiments. In the current work, a faster and simplified first-order resistance–capacitance (RC) equivalent circuit model was developed for a commercial cylindrical cell (LGM50 21700). An analytical solution was developed for the equivalent circuit model incorporating SOC and temperature-dependent RC parameters. The solution to the RC circuit model was derived using multiple expressions for different components like open circuit voltage (OCV), instantaneous resistance (R0), and diffusional parameters (R1 and C1) as a function of the SOC and operating temperature. The derived parameters were validated against the virtual HPPC test results of a validated physics-based electrochemical model for the voltage behavior. Using the developed RC circuit model, a polynomial expression is derived to estimate the temperature increase of the cell including both irreversible and reversible heat generation components. The temperature predicted by the proposed RC circuit model at different battery operating temperatures is in good agreement with the values obtained from the validated physics model. The developed method can find applications in (i) onboard energy management by the BMS and (ii) quicker evaluation of cell performance early in the product development cycle.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-19
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060215
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
- Batteries, Vol. 10, Pages 216: An Investigation into Electrolytes and
Cathodes for Room-Temperature Sodium–Sulfur Batteries
Authors: Hakeem Ademola Adeoye, Stephen Tennison, John F. Watts, Constantina Lekakou
First page: 216
Abstract: In the pursuit of high energy density batteries beyond lithium, room-temperature (RT) sodium–sulfur (Na-S) batteries are studied, combining sulfur, as a high energy density active cathode material and a sodium anode considered to offer high energy density and very good standard potential. Different liquid electrolyte systems, including three different salts and two different solvents, are investigated in RT Na-S battery cells, on the basis of the solubility of sulfur and sulfides, specific capacity, and cyclability of the cells at different C-rates. Two alternative cathode host materials are explored: A bimodal pore size distribution activated carbon host AC MSC30 and a highly conductive carbon host of hollow particles with porous particle walls. An Na-S cell with a cathode coating with 44 wt% sulfur in the AC MSC30 host and the electrolyte 1M NaFSI in DOL/DME exhibited a specific capacity of 435 mAh/gS but poor cyclability. An Na-S cell with a cathode coating with 44 wt% sulfur in the host of hollow porous particles and the electrolyte 1M NaTFSI in TEGDME exhibited a specific capacity of 688 mAh/gS.
Citation: Batteries
PubDate: 2024-06-20
DOI: 10.3390/batteries10060216
Issue No: Vol. 10, No. 6 (2024)
