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Abstract: Abstract Many scholars investigating sexism distinguish between two related, but distinct, forms of sexism aimed at women: hostile sexism and benevolent sexism (Glick & Fiske, 1996). These sexist beliefs can seem contradictory, with hostile sexism (HS) reflecting more contempt for women and benevolent sexism (BS) offering protection and care to women, but both serve to maintain the gender status hierarchy. However, these concepts may have been created based on the white feminine ideal and may not apply to women of color. For example, expectations about female sexual purity may be different across race and may lead to differential treatment of women who violate purity norms. In the current research, participants (N = 410) read a news article about a black or white woman arrested for prostitution, and answered questions about convicting, punishing, and helping the woman. Participants high in HS and high in BS were more likely to convict and punish the sex worker than those low in HS and BS, but HS and BS did not interact with race when predicting conviction and punishment. For helping those high in HS were less likely to recommend immediate interventions and those high in BS were more likely to recommend dependency-oriented interventions, but none of the two-way interactions with sexism and race was significant. It is possible that sex work is such a strong violation of the female purity norm that punishment of women who violate this norm does not vary based on the characteristics of the woman but more intersectional research on race and sexism is needed. PubDate: 2022-06-01
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Abstract: Abstract Research shows that structural disadvantage is a key source of violent crime rates across racial/ethnic groups, a finding that has become more commonly known as “racial invariance.” However, this literature has focused primarily on white, black and Latino comparisons, with little attention to Asian populations. This omission is problematic considering that (1) Asians are the fastest growing minority group in the U.S. and (2) the sources of Asian crime could differ from those of white and black populations. Drawing on the racial invariance hypothesis, the current study uses 2010 city-level data to compare the structural predictors of violent crime arrest rates (homicide, robbery, rape, and aggravated assault) for white, black, and Asian populations. Findings reveal that disadvantage contributes to violence for all three racial/ethnic groups, but the magnitude of these effects and effects of other structural predictors differ. Findings from the current study offer implications for the racial invariance debate. PubDate: 2022-06-01
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Abstract: Abstract Little research has examined the residential segregation of blacks, Hispanics, and Asians from whites disaggregated by family structure and the presence of children in metropolitan America. Using data from the 2010 Census and the 2006–2010 American Community Survey, we find that, net of controls, among blacks, single-mother families are significantly more segregated from whites than married couples, regardless of the presence of children. However, these same differences in segregation are not found among Hispanics and Asians. Among those groups, married families with children under 18 are more segregated from whites than married families without children under 18, suggesting that married Hispanics and Asians with children desire closer proximity to their co-ethnics. The results suggest that racial and ethnic segregation by family structure and the presence of children varies by the racial and ethnic group considered and is, therefore, important to understanding overall racial and ethnic segregation in metropolitan America. PubDate: 2022-06-01
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Abstract: Abstract Previous research has demonstrated a relationship between black residential segregation and poor health outcomes. However, this association is less clear for the segregation of other racial/ethnic minority groups in the United States, such as Latinos and Asians. We argue that immigration may moderate this relationship, and that this could help explain these disparate results. We test this using multilevel statistical models of individual-level health data nested within Census tracts in a study of the Houston area using the 2009–2014 Kinder Houston Area Survey, the 2010 U.S. Census, and the 2006–2010 American Community Survey. We find that black and Latino residential segregation is associated with greater poor health reporting, though not for Asian segregation. Further, we find that immigration moderates this relationship for Latino segregation, such that where tract-level immigration is low, Latino segregation is positively related to poor health, but that this slope becomes flatter as immigration increases. PubDate: 2022-06-01
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Abstract: Abstract The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been reported to disproportionately impact racial/ethnic minorities in the USA, both in terms of infections and deaths. This racial disparity in the COVID-19 outcomes may result from the segregation of minorities in neighborhoods with health-compromising conditions. We, thus, anticipate that neighborhoods would be especially vulnerable to COVID-19 if they are of present-day economic and racial disadvantage and were redlined historically. To test this expectation, we examined the change of both confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths from April to July, 2020, in zip code tabulation areas (ZCTAs) in the New York City using multilevel regression analysis. The results indicate that ZCTAs with a higher proportion of black and Hispanic populations are associated with a higher percentage of COVID-19 infection. Historically low-graded neighborhoods show a higher risk for COVID-19 infection, even for ZCTAs with present-day economic and racial privilege. These associations change over time as the pandemic unfolds. Racial/ethnic minorities are bearing the brunt of the COVID-19 pandemic’s health impact. The current evidence shows that the pre-existing social structure in the form of racial residential segregation could be partially responsible for the disparities observed, highlighting an urgent need to stress historical segregation and to build a less segregated and more equal society. PubDate: 2022-06-01
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Abstract: Abstract Social stratification by skin color is evident across the globe. In Asia, the origins of colorism are more obscure, and contemporary patterns are less studied. This paper examines the presence and patterns of colorism in an Asian context. Using data from Project Implicit, Study 1 investigated the extent to which participants associated dark skin color with negative concepts and light skin color with positive concepts. East Asia emerged as the world region with the highest level of skin color bias. Using experiments conducted in Singapore, Studies 2–4 investigated how manipulating skin color impacted the evaluations of job applicants. Studies 2 and 4 documented a modestly sized bias against dark- and medium-skinned applicants relative to light-skinned applicants, driven primarily by female participants. Study 3, which increased the range of applicant credentials, documented an attenuation of skin color bias. Furthermore, stratified models indicated participants from lower socioeconomic status families displayed higher levels of bias. PubDate: 2022-06-01
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Abstract: Abstract A growing body of research links interpersonal racial and ethnic discrimination to adverse youth outcomes. Yet, studies examining the relevance of neighborhood context for discrimination are sparse. This study examines neighborhood-level variation in the incidence and impact of perceived racial and ethnic discrimination on depressive symptoms, suicidal behavior, violent behavior, and substance use. Hierarchical regression models on a sample of 1333 African American and Hispanic youth (52.44% female; x̄ = 13.03 years, SD = 3.25 at wave 1) residing in 238 Chicago neighborhoods from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods indicated little to no neighborhood-level variation in the incidence and impact of discrimination. Findings suggest that the experience of discrimination among youth of color is ubiquitous. PubDate: 2022-05-14
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Abstract: Abstract The current project examines whether perceptions of collective efficacy are racialized. Using a sample of Black and Latinx young adults in Chicago, we first investigate whether perceptions of discrimination vary across Chicago’s neighborhoods and whether neighborhood-level structural characteristics (concentrated disadvantage, immigrant concentration, residential stability) or neighborhood social processes (neighborhood-level collective efficacy) are related to their perceptions of discrimination. Our estimations show that perceptions of discrimination are endemic to Chicago’s neighborhoods and are not related with neighborhood-level structural characteristics. Second, we examine whether perceptions of discrimination predict perceiving less collective efficacy while controlling for neighborhood characteristics. Overall, individuals perceive less collective efficacy when they perceive being discriminated against. Third, we analyze the sources of perceptions of collective efficacy separately for Black and Latinx individuals. These results suggest that discrimination shapes Black individuals’ perceptions of their neighbors but do not hold for Latinx individuals. Supplemental analyses reveal that for Latinx individuals, discrimination undermines perceptions of collective efficacy only when is framed as related to their race. Taken together, our results suggest that racism is embedded in the way racialized individuals perceive their neighbors’ agreement regarding norms of intervention. In short, the results suggest that the formation of collective efficacy is racialized. PubDate: 2022-05-04
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Abstract: Abstract Research on key determinants of negative attitudes toward immigration has often suggested that values held by individuals systematically explain such sentiments. Universalists appear to have more positive and conservatives more negative attitudes. So far, however, these insights are based on studies using adult samples. In our study, we analyze these relations among children and adolescents. For the analysis, we utilized a Swiss-Polish panel dataset (2015–2017, N = 5,332) with three time points collected among school children aged 8–19 years. We employed autoregressive cross-lagged models. The results indicated that while universalism decreased negative attitudes toward immigrants, the expected effect for conformity-tradition was not found. PubDate: 2022-04-21
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Abstract: Abstract Many whites explicitly believe that their race has had no impact on their accomplishments in life. The current study used the contingent valuation method to implicitly measure the value of being white—or alternatively, the cost of being black—among a sample of white college students. Participants were presented with a hypothetical scenario in which their racial appearance was altered due to a medical mishap, and then asked to identify the negative consequences they would experience as a result of this change. Participants also assigned a dollar value to their race by reporting the smallest financial settlement they would accept as compensation for the mishap. Results revealed that white students who imagined being black anticipated financial consequences significantly more often than black students who imaged being white, but they anticipated psychosocial consequences significantly less often. The median financial settlement for whiteness was relatively low, while the mean value was quite large and highlighted the importance of whiteness among certain respondents. These findings are discussed, with suggestions for future research. PubDate: 2022-04-17
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Abstract: Abstract The current studies examined whether the race and gender of a person under suspicion (Studies 1 and 2), as well as the race of the person who called the police (Study 2) influences perceptions of police conduct. Participants read a summary in which the police were called on individuals waiting in a coffee shop (Study 1; N = 133) or sleeping in their dorm common room (Study 2; N = 247). Suspect race (Indigenous vs. White) and gender (male vs. female) were varied in both studies. In Study 2, the race of the person who called the police also varied (Indigenous vs. White). Participants in Study 1 believed race influenced the call to police and the arrest when the suspect was Indigenous (vs. White). Additionally, in both studies, participants were more likely to think that gender influenced the call to police and the arrest when the suspect was described as male (vs. female). The current studies provide new insight regarding public perception of racialized police communication. PubDate: 2022-04-02
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Abstract: Abstract This paper examined how sources (experienced and media) and forms (overt and subtle) of discrimination were associated with emotional response and behavioral coping among Asians and Asian Americans during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data were collected in June 2020 from 249 Asian and Asian American adults living in 20 U.S. states. We used hierarchical regression for data analysis, controlling for age, gender, and the length of residence in the U.S. Results showed that experienced discrimination, especially in the overt form, was associated with both emotional responses (i.e., emotional distress and vigilance) and behavioral coping (i.e., using avoidant behavior to protect oneself). Media discrimination was associated only with emotional response. The relationship between experienced discrimination and emotional response was less pronounced among those who frequently observed discrimination in the media. Notably, subtle discrimination through personal experience or media exposure was positively associated with behavioral coping. The results suggest the need to address the rising anti-Asian acts with more initiatives in policy and practice, with special attention paid to the parallel influences from personal experience and media exposure to violence. PubDate: 2022-04-01
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Abstract: Abstract People often assume areas where black people live are dangerous, impoverished, and rundown, whereas they assume White areas to be safe, wealthy, and well-maintained (Bonam et al. in J Exp Psychol Gen 145(11):1561–1582, 2016). These space-focused racial stereotypes shape how people perceive, evaluate, and treat physical space, such as houses and neighborhoods. Further, people often associate specific types of spaces with certain races (e.g., inner-city is Black; suburb is White), making them racial exemplar spaces (Bonam, in Devaluing Black space: Black locations as targets of housing and environmental discrimination, Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Stanford University, Stanford, 2010). The present work expands insight into racialized physical space by showing how Black and White exemplar spaces and White space-focused racial stereotypes shape person-perception. Specifically, we report findings from a vignette study examining how “black” and “criminal” people perceived a target person. This target was black or white and was in a suburban or inner-city neighborhood. We also measured people’s generalized stereotypes about white areas. People thought of the Black versus White person as being more black, which in turn made the target seem more criminal. This relationship was stronger in a suburban versus inner-city neighborhood—likely because being in an inner-city area made the White target seem more black, whereas the black target seemed black no matter where he was. Additionally, the more people thought of white areas as generally safe, wealthy, and well-maintained, the more they criminalized the black—but not white—target in a suburban neighborhood. This study highlights the need to further explore how racialized physical space shapes social perception, and it provides insight into the criminalization and policing of black bodies in white spaces. PubDate: 2022-03-16
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Abstract: Abstract Historically, old southern codes were used to regulate the interactions between black males and white females. We draw parallels between these codes and current sexual harassment laws to examine the perceptions of sexual behavior that crosses racial lines. Specifically, we examine how white and black female targets perceived and reacted to the behavior of males of the same and different race than their own. Our results indicate that white women perceive the behavior committed by a man of another race as more sexually harassing than when a white male commits the behavior. Conversely, black women perceive the behavior committed by black men as more sexually harassing than when a man of a different race engages in the same behavior. Further, a similar pattern emerges for reporting sexual harassment. Implications for research and the management of sexual harassment are discussed. PubDate: 2022-03-05 DOI: 10.1007/s12552-022-09355-6
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Abstract: Abstract During his 2016 presidential campaign, Donald Trump distinguished himself from other candidates via his hardline stances on issues of immigration. Using data from national surveys conducted between 2014 and 2019, we identify three key findings about views of immigrants among the American public during the Trump era. First, xenophobia was the strongest predictor of Americans’ feelings—anger, fear, pride, and hope—about Donald Trump during his time in office, and the second strongest predictor of feelings about the Republican party (after partisan identification). Second, the influence of Americans’ levels of xenophobia on their feelings about the Republican Party were significantly mediated by their feelings about Trump, especially for negative affect (anger and fear). Third, there has been a backlash against xenophobia, such that political independents and Democrats became significantly more favorable toward immigrants after 2016. As a result, views of immigrants have become more favorable overall, but also more politically polarized. These findings support and extend immigration backlash theory, contribute to research on affective polarization, and document consequential trends in contemporary American politics. PubDate: 2022-03-01 DOI: 10.1007/s12552-021-09337-0
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Abstract: Abstract This study investigated the main and interactive effects of identity-based challenges, discrimination, and Multiracial pride on psychological distress in Biracial emerging adults. Additionally, we examined whether these associations may differ by Biracial sub-group (e.g., black–white, Asian–white, Latinx–white, and minority–minority) given their unique racial experiences. Participants were 326 Biracial emerging adults (Mage = 19.57 years old; 75.2% female) recruited from three public universities in the United States for an online survey. For all Biracial groups, identity-based challenges were associated with greater psychological distress. After testing a series of competing multi-group regression models, results indicated that the relations between distress and our predictors: identity-based challenges, discrimination, and Multiracial pride do indeed differ across Biracial sub-group. The most apparent and unique differences were displayed by the black–white Biracial sub-group. These findings highlight identity-based challenges as a unique risk in the Biracial population and suggest that a principled comparison between Biracial sub-groups is necessary to tease apart group-specific associations between these constructs and psychological distress. PubDate: 2022-03-01 DOI: 10.1007/s12552-021-09325-4
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Abstract: Abstract The purpose of this paper is to explore 10-year trends in infant mortality rates (IMRs) from 2007 to 2016 for non-Hispanic (NH) blacks and NH whites by levels of sociodemographic characteristics such as maternal age, marital status, education, and access to prenatal care. Using data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Wonder Online database, descriptive statistics were performed, and a measure of disparity was calculated to illustrate racial differences in IMRs. Between 2007 and 2016, IMRs for NH blacks have declined at a faster rate (15.8%) compared to NH whites (13.5%). As for the selected sociodemographic indicators, reductions were observed for both racial groups for most age categories assessed, married and unmarried women, and for women with early or no access to prenatal care. For educational attainment levels, declines were observed for both racial groups for all levels except for high school graduate or GED and some college, in which increases were observed for NH white women. The measure of disparity illustrates the large racial gap in IMRs persists between NH blacks and NH whites. More structural and systemic mechanisms, including research and policies, are needed to address the disparities in IMRs. PubDate: 2022-03-01 DOI: 10.1007/s12552-021-09328-1
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Abstract: Abstract Online harassment is a growing societal problem. Although online harassment, or cyber aggression, has begun to receive attention, little research systematically explores the common themes found in hostile messages. In this project, we focused on online harassment directed towards women of color. We applied social network methodology and text clustering (topic analysis) to messages posted on the social media platform Twitter. We examined the occurrence of aggressive, harmful Twitter messages directed towards two groups—Hispanic/Latinx women and Black women. Next, we uncovered common themes that emerged within the communications. Messages towards both groups of women contained themes of racial stereotypes. In tweets that targeted Black women, one emergent theme concerned charges of promiscuity, where messages included slurs that accused Black women of being overly sexual. In messages containing Latinx slurs, on the other hand, xenophobia was one recurring topic, with common terms related to menial labor and political comments invoking the need to “build a wall.” Both groups of women also were subjected to feminine, attractiveness insults. Findings suggest that these negative communications are not idiosyncratic in nature, but instead routinely reinforce traditional, negative, race and gender stereotypes. As a result, these hostile messages contribute to the maintenance of race and gender inequality. PubDate: 2022-03-01 DOI: 10.1007/s12552-021-09330-7
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Abstract: Abstract Studies of the mortgage industry’s impact on racial stratification have long focused on racial disparities found between white and black homeowners. Ample research demonstrates that unequal access and treatment between white and black home seekers has created major differences in the type of loan products they are offered in the marketplace. While numerous studies also document disadvantaged Latino homebuyers, studies have yet to examine racial variation within the Latino population. This paper draws on annual data from the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act (HMDA) from 2010 to 2017 to assess variation in racial disparities among Latinos in loan outcomes and compares them to Non-Latino whites, blacks, Asians, and Others. I show that loan rejections and high cost originations are highest among black Latinos and lowest among white and Asian Latinos. Other Latinos perform somewhere in the middle. These trends are particularly true when examining mortgage denials. When comparing Latino racial groups to Non-Latinos, the observed lending patterns provide evidence of a tri-racial hierarchy in the mortgage market. PubDate: 2022-03-01 DOI: 10.1007/s12552-021-09326-3
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