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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: This paper aims to review the archaeological evidence for Pessinus (modern-day Ball'hisar), a major site that may provide precious information on settlement development of the Phrygian Period away from Gordion. The archaeological research conducted at Pessinus/Ball'hisar, however, reveals scant occupation before the sixth century BCE. This is likely due to the fact that the growth and prosperity of this ancient site were often reliant on external factors that may or may not have provided favourable conditions for its success. In particular, it appears that Pessinus greatly benefited from the presence of larger supra-regional powers, which facilitated the establishment of connections across the area. Pessinus, thus, expanded during the Achaemenid Period, which saw the creation of a significant commercial network in the region. During the Hellenistic Period, when Pessinus emerged as a major centre, its association with Pergamon and the Attalids played a crucial role in strengthening the connection between Pessinus and the cult of Cybele, which is not present at the site of Pessinus before this time. The Roman Period marked a distinct phase in the history of Ball'hisar/Pessinus, characterised by urban development and extensive occupation. This growth came at the expense of local elites, who participated in the new order established in central Anatolia by Emperor Augustus and continued by his followers. PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:48:24 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:46:44 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:45:05 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: not available PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:43:32 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: The paper presents the results of the most recent campaigns conducted by the Archaeological Mission in Hierapolis of Phrygia. After a brief introduction on the Iron Age research in the Lykos Valley, the results of research carried out in recent years (2017-2019) will be presented. An important discovery concerns the identification of the Phrygian phase dating back to the Iron Age, never documented before this research. A necropolis dating back to the eighth to seventh centuries BCE has been explored through extensive excavations during the last three years. It is the first discovery of this type in the entire Lykos valley. It sheds new light on the settlement of the area before the Macedonian colonisation, a subject on which there are so far no documents from stratigraphic excavations. PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:42:40 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: The purpose of this study is to investigate, from a historical perspective, some aspects of the Greek imaginary regarding ancient Phrygia. More specifically, we aim to provide deeper insights as to how Greek- and Latin-speaking authors tried to make sense, in spatial terms, of the Phrygian world they set in mythical, pre-historical times. Addressing issues from the angle of cultural geography, we will attempt to answer questions such as: which places came to be mostly associated with figures and tales relating to the Phrygian past, serving as Phrygian landmarks in the eyes of Greek observers' How did historical events contribute to shaping the Greek geography of the ancient Phrygian world' Finally, is it possible to indirectly recover, through the thick lens of Greek cultural memory, elements of the cultural geography of Iron Age Phrygians' PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:41:19 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:40:03 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: The present contribution points to scribal schools in the Cilician and north Syrian areas as a likely context for the origins of the Phrygian and Greek alphabets, along the lines of the co-occurrence theory of these two writing systems recently advanced by Benjamin Sass. It then presents other cases of the adaptation of a pre-existing writing system to a new language, which may provide parallels, or in broader terms comparanda for the adaptation of the Phoenician writing system to Phrygian and Greek. Case studies include the Old Persian cuneiform syllabary, created essentially ex novo and without any phonetic link to a preexisting writing system, and the ajami scripts used to write West African languages, heavily based on the Arabic writing system taught in the Quranic schools, which carried over a number of Arabic graphemes with no function in the languages to which the system was adapted. The respective levels of orthographic consistency reflect the different socio-political contexts in which these systems were devised and their purposes, in ways that provide food for thought to the study of the Phrygian and Greek alphabets. PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:38:34 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:37:09 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: The aim of this contribution is to better understand the impact of Phrygian traditions and cults on material culture by focusing on the representations of birds of prey, widely attested both as independent objects and as attributes of the goddess Matar. Birds of prey were surely part of central Anatolian everyday life in the Phrygian period; even better, they should have been related to important human activities since they ended up playing a big role in the iconographic milieu of these populations. Here, an overview of representations of birds of prey in Iron Age central Anatolia is offered, in order to explain the enormous iconographic success of this subject. What will emerge is the fact that the representations of raptors, in particular hawks and eagles, seem to have had a wide chronological spread but a very focused geographical concentration: they appear in Phrygian art from the mid-ninth century BCE and continue down to the sixth century BCE, with some possible later remnants. The article aims to offer some interpretative clues for their concentration in this period. PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:33:20 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: The creation of rock-cut monuments is widespread in Anatolia, not limited to one region or culture. This hints at shared practices, possibly based on interrelations and even competition between lands. Phrygia, however, can definitely be highlighted as one of the leading regions in this medium. In this paper, the 'step monuments' in Phrygian Midas City, and their possible regional parallels are investigated. The areas to the southeast have received more scholarly attention, so, to broaden the scope, the emphasis here is a comparison of the Phrygian corpus with monuments located in the western Anatolian/Aegean region. This includes the so-called 'Throne of Pelops' on Mount Sipylos in Lydia, a rock-cut installation on Bu'lbu'lda' in Ephesos, and two altars on the islands of Chios and Halki. In the final section of the paper, an attempt is made to reconcile the contemporary perception of these places with ancient literary sources. Hopefully, these investigations can supplement the study of the Phrygian rock-cut monuments. PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:31:53 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:25:47 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:23:53 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: not available PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:21:59 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: not available PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:21:53 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: not available PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:21:47 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: Scholarship has often drawn attention to the Classical written sources suggesting that the Phrygian cultural sphere reached far north to the Black Sea coast; however, direct evidence seemed to lack, given the challenges of gathering and synthesising the disparate archaeological material. Although noted, but not widely appreciated is the early evidence for veneration of the Mother Goddess with the name Kybebos in Amisos, and a few sculptures from the coastal sites that are only tentatively dated to the eighth to seventh century BCE. Yet, the question of the extent and nature of Phrygian influence at the Black Sea coast remains open to discussion. Recent archaeological discoveries at the different excavated sites brought a number of archaeological materials to the light that can be more securely assigned to the Phrygian cultural sphere. This paper will present a survey of archaeological evidence for a comprehensive analysis of broader cultural networks of Phrygia and draw on the thesis that the southern Black Sea coast was a middle ground for cultural encounters between Greek colonists and Phrygians. PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:21:29 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: Traditional views in Classical Archaeology attribute the first use of ceramic roof tiles to the Greek polis of Corinth, where they are thought to have originated in the first half of the seventh century BCE. However, the lavishly decorated tiles of the Phrygian and Lydian kingdoms in Asia Minor have mostly been regarded as provincial copies of the Greek examples, dating to the sixth century BCE. The New Chronology of the Phrygian capital of Gordion requires a re-evaluation of the dating and cultural context of the numerous tiles that have been discovered at the site since excavations began in the early 20th century. Some of the tiles, having been found in contexts associated with Middle Phrygian buildings, must now be dated to the eighth century BCE, based on stratigraphic, typological, iconographic, stylistic, and historical grounds. They seem to be closely linked to the rebuilding of the palace citadel after its destruction by fire ca. 800 BCE. The tiles from Gordion thus pre-date those from mainland Greece by about a century, attributing the invention of ceramic roof tiles to the Phrygians. PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:19:12 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: Metal vessels from Iron Age Phrygia have commonly been interpreted as models for later Greek vessels. This is also the case for metal ladles, which are attested on the Anatolian Plateau from the mid-ninth century BCE onwards. Further west, in the Aegean and the wider western Mediterranean, ladles are only introduced in the late sixth century BCE. In order to evaluate the hypothesis of a Phrygian model for these later 'Greek' ladles, evidence for other first-millennium BCE ladle types will be reviewed. It will be argued that the introduction of ladles to the Greek world was not connected to Phrygia, but to wider changes in drinking practices, involving the whole of the Greek world and the Mediterranean in general. PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:17:48 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:16:30 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: Tumulus construction as a form of elite burial is known across the world, and Anatolia is no exception, with its rich history of Phrygian, Lydian, and Achaemenid tumuli. The earliest known example of a tumulus constructed as an elite burial in Anatolia comes from ninth-century-BCE Gordion. Over the next ca. 300 years, more than 120 tumuli were built in the landscape surrounding the site, and the tradition was adopted by Lydian and Persian elites elsewhere in Anatolia. While the spread of tumulus construction beyond Phrygia is better theorised, less attention has been paid to the original instantiation of the burial form at Gordion, beyond being connected with Thrace as part of the larger question of Phrygian ethnicity. This focus obscures the significance of the development of the tradition within the context of Iron Age Gordion. After discussing the chronological gap and significant differences between Thracian and Phrygian tumuli, this paper discusses tumulus construction at Gordion as a local development tied to changing practices of elite self-representation. Rather than representing a Thracian-derived Phrygian ethnicity, the use of a wooden tomb chamber should be considered a reflection of expanding elite networks in the Early Phrygian Period at Gordion itself. PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:14:52 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:12:59 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: This article provides a survey of Gordion during the Middle Phrygian period, which extends from a great conflagration in 800 BCE to the Persian attack in 540. New excavations during the last ten years have provided considerable insights into this period in particular, although equally important advances have been made in our understanding of the citadel during the second half of the ninth century. Following the first arrivals of the Phrygians in the second half of the 12th century, the site remained a relatively unimportant village for roughly 300 years, changing only ca. 850 into a strongly fortified citadel. The impetus behind this sudden change remains unclear, but it inaugurated a 150-year period of steadily increasing political and military strength, culminating in the reign of Midas ca. 740 and seemingly ending with his death ca. 700. When the fortunes of Gordion rose again ca. 600 BCE, it was due primarily to the advent of Lydian control over what had once been Phrygia. This veneer of prosperity evaporated in the Persian attack in the 540s, and would never reappear. PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:11:14 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: not available PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:10:25 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:09:33 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:08:14 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:06:45 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:04:45 +000
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Authors:poj@peeters-leuven.be Abstract: Introduction PubDate: Wed, 25 Jun 2025 08:02:08 +000
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