Authors:Angela /Thomas Kallhoff / Schulte-Umberg Abstract: The articles of the sixth issue of the Interdisciplinary Journal for Religion and Transformation in Contemporary Society debate war morals and religion from a longterm historical perspective. The issue brings together researchers from various sciences – history, theology, literary studies, philosophy, and sociology – in order to present recent insights into theories and experiences of war with special emphasis on religion. By focusing on the commitment of combatants and commitments to enhance peace, the contributors provide new insights from a fresh and still unusual perspective. They will spur further discussion of moral commitment in war ethics, the role of religion in war, and of the prospect of peace ethics. Religion played a major role in the life of combatants and non-combatants in WWI, the “seminal catastrophe” (George Kennan) of the 20th century. Religion remains a multi-faceted and steady aspect of warfare that, in some respects, serves as a peace-enhancing worldview. PubDate: 2018-08-16 Issue No:Vol. 6 (2018)
Authors:Angela Kallhoff Abstract: The paper builds on a current debate in the philosophy of war, which are rules that contribute to the containment of war and to a system of fair rules in warfare. Both are key issues in the “jus in bello” as a central part of war ethics. Recently, philosophers have questioned a general exculpation of soldiers in that context. Instead of restricting the debate on “justifiable killing” to the “jus ad bellum,”which explores moral restrictions in starting warfare, philosophers examine moral implications when soldiers kill in war. Even though epistemic limitations and duties of soldiers need to be taken into account, the paper argues for a more detailed exploration of acts of killing in war by soldiers.
Authors:Andreas Holzem Abstract: This paper gives an overview of how war theories in Christianity changed during the different periods of western Christianity from the late antiquity to modern times. The basic thesis is that, in contrast to the relationship between war and cult in ancient religions of the old Orient, Greece, and Rome, Christian war theories had not only one, but two functions to fulfill. On the one hand, the Christian religion had to cope with the inheritance of their traditional role models: priests and prophets had to support military force and to secure the victory by divine aid. Bellum iustum in this sense was the cult that pleased the Goddesses/God and ensured their/his backing. On the other hand, bellum iustum in early Christian theology, and ever since, was a problem of peace, restriction of power, and ethically-based self control. After the conversion of Constantine to Christianity, Christian emperors, kings, and princes were inclined to emphasize the first target of Christian religion, while the theologians still had to interpret the moral restrictions on warfare devised by St Augustine, St Thomas Aquinas, Francisco de Vitoria, and the philosophers of the Early modern international law. These competing expectations concerning the relationship of Christianity and warfare led to many ambiguities, all too oftenprecluding a substantial contributionofChristian religion toamore peaceful world.
Authors:Franziska Quabeck Abstract: This paper considers literary texts that foreground the combatants' view. The focus lies on the soldiers' perspective in general and on just war theory!s principle of responsibility in particular. The distinction between jus ad bellum and jus in bello as discussed by just war theorists allows us to distinguish between different spheres of responsibility and this entails that soldiers may be not responsible for the war as such, only for their conduct. However, this view is contested, as many just war theorists today argue that we ought to makeadistinction between just and unjust soldiers. This paper discusses literary texts that seem to counter this view. Two playwrights, William Shakespeare and Gregory Burke, writing war plays for the stage over four hundred years apart, go to great lengths to show their audience the common soldiers! perspective on the justice of the wars they fight in. This paper argues that both playwrights draw a line between jus ad bellumand jus in bello. Both Shakespeare and Burke seem to emphasize deliberately that soldiers cannot beheld accountable for the injustice of the causes they are obligated to fight for.
Authors:Sabine A. Haring Abstract: This paper deals with the We-feelings, the Images of Enemies, and the Hostility of German-speaking k.u.k. soldiers serving during the First World War. Against the background of Elias!s figurational approach and in a sociology of emotions! perspective, my analysis is focused on affectual ties within military units and stresses the important role of different power balances (vertical loyalty) in regard to We-feelings and images of friends and enemies. In addition, group norms and group constraints – that influence wether the issue of We-feelings is broached or not – are rudimentary illustrated by using different sources: regimental histories, autobiographic manuscripts and diaries. These sources, as the paper shows, give a lively picture of a process from their initial enthusiasm to their growing alienation as a result of technicization and de-personalization and, finally, to their experiencing the war as either a natural, lawful necessity or, in contrast, as a pointless, meaningless struggle. The paper will particulary discuss the following questions: Which emotions are constitutive for We-Feelings and for Hostility at the front' What was the importance of emotions such as shame, sympathy, compassion and revenge regarding the bond of affection between soldiers of the Habsburg Army during World War I' Which role did „comradeship” play during attacks, particulary in regard to the escalation of violence at the front' And, how did the war shape the image of “the enemy”'
Authors:Andrea Hofmann Abstract: The paper analyses how in German Protestant sermons and devotional literature of World War I an “ethic for soldiers” was drafted. In their writings, the pastors offered the soldiers advice on “righteous fighting” and emphasized the compatibility of Christianity and soldiery. Drawing on the theological tradition, they distinguished between private and public ethics. AsaChristian in private, life a soldierwas fully committed to the gospel and, thus, to loving his neighbour. At the same time, however, due to his profession and as a citizen of the German Reich, he was subject to the German government and obliged to obey this government by killing if necessary. Examining letters offers a further perspective: the complex distinction between private and public ethics was hardly distinguished by soldiers themselves. The letters show also that for some soldiers the idea of following Jesus in their actions did have a meaningful effect during wartime. By comparing the two positions (pastors – soldiers), one can draw the picture ofa multi-layered “ethic for soldiers” during World War I.
Authors:Thomas Schulte-Umberg Abstract: Within the framework of a moral theory of warfare, religion per se may well have a war morale promoting function in wars. Whether and to what extent this was the case in a given war can, of course, only be said on a case-by-case basis. A case report is presented here for the pastoral care of Austro-Hungarian troops during the First World War. In order to be able to identify both the specific and the general of the individual case, the field pastoral of other belligerent powers of the Great War is also taken into account. In comparison, the number of the Austro-Hungarian field chaplains was not as exceptional as is often assumed. Likewise the role of religion as a medium to embolden and reassure soldiers was shared in different belligerent nations. What mattered for the efficiency of pastoral care in war was that Austro-Hungarian leaders, a great number of their officers, and the troops believed in the ability of the chaplains to motivate the troops. However, this depended to a high degree on the consolatory and even dissociating aspects of catholic faith and practice.
Authors:Michael Snape Abstract: Challenging the mythology of the "Greatest Generation" this article examines the conduct of American combat soldiers in North Africa and Europe during the Second World War. Although the ferocity and barbarity of America!s Pacific War is widely recognised and attributed, at least in part, to the cultural and racial cleavages between America and Japan, the treatment of German and Italian soldiers by American ground troops invites greater examination. Here the religiously susceptible products of a largely Christian and even pacifist society, who went on to comprise a generational pillar of American religious life in the second half of the twentieth century, often behaved with a ruthlessness that shocked contemporary observers, including many of their own chaplains. In the absence of a racial and cultural chasm between the antagonists, this article examines the catalysts and patterns of this behaviour and exposes the fragility of traditional moral constraints in the context of America!s much-vaunted "good" war.
Authors:Daniel Gerster Abstract: The paper explores how and why Catholic thinking and teaching about war changed during the second half of the 20th century. To do so, I will examine the ways in which the two world wars and the atomic bomb shaped the Catholic perception of modern warfare, outline how declarations of the Roman Catholic Church shifted the official Catholic position, and examine the impact of those changes with regard to West Germany and the United States. I conclude that, while the fundaments of Catholic "moralities of warfare" such as the just war concept, remained unchanged even after 1945, there were essential shifts in what can be said and what can be done about war and peace. These shifts exceeded general Catholic ambiguity on the topic, which had existed for many centuries. Thepaper will discuss how these shifts were linked to other fundamental developments of recent decades, such as the globalisation of the Catholic Church, the pluralisation of the religious field, and the individualisation of life style in Western countries.
Authors:Raphael Döhn Abstract: This paper focuses on a posthumously published speech by the Jewish philosopher Hans Jonas, named Reflections onReligious Aspects of Warlessness. Jonas talks about the topic of war and peace in the teachings and history of different religions; namely, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Manicheism. Furthermore, he discusses the relations between war, peace, and religion in general, highlights the dangers of the modern nuclear age, and speculates about the role that religion might play in the process of avoiding war in the future. The paper sums up the most important statements of Jonas!s speech and takes a look into other texts by Jonas that help us to understand his thoughts on war and peace; e. g., The Concept of God after Auschwitz, his reflections about the participation of Jews in the Second World War and his studies about Gnosticism. In addition, the paper also discusses Jonas's propositions in a questioning manner and takes its own standpoint on both Reflections on Religious Aspects of Warlessness and the relations between war, peace, and the different religions in the past and in the world of today.
Authors:Birgit Rath Abstract: This paper will give an insight into the theological war discourse of the 20th century. Focusing especially on the time after the Second World War, Karl Hörmann!s scientific discourse (1915–2004) will be the pivotal element of this article. One of his main research areas was the bellum-iustum doctrine, which he restricted in a way that questioned the legitimacy of war, even though he also argued strictly against an imperative war ban. Hörmann!s writings show a dichotomy, which in a certain way reflects a paradigmatic dilemma of his time. On the one hand, it demonstrates adherence to the traditional doctrines of just war and the right to defense. On the other hand, attempts of a new peace ethics become visible. Hörmann!s teachings were marked by the obligation to defend justice and, at the same time, by a desire for peace.
Authors:Maria Neumann Abstract: Between 1945 and 1990, Berlin was the symbolic centre of a divided world. Nevertheless, some links remained intact. For instance, Christian communities aspired to maintain and defend ecclesiastical unity across national borders. But how would that unity be practised' Where did the fault lines run' This essay looks into the relationships of sister churches in East and West Germany. Through a close examination of their connections and inter-relations, it will reveal an interdependent transformation of values and attitudes. Furthermore, I will argue that sister church relationships extended beyond the simplistic notion of “unity”. By looking into regular get-togethers of the sister churches, I am able to show that the participating churches underwent continuous change and adjustment as they were exposed to divergent perceptions and expectations. By facing the Other – the other Bloc, the other state, the other Christian – the actors became aware of factual and perceived differences. As a result, they began challenging the status quo in their own churches. Therefore, the patterns of ecclesiastical behaviour in two separate social systems can be regarded as reciprocally affected.
Authors:Sara Kuehn Abstract: Beginning around the twelfth century, a distinct movement of itinerant antinomian dervishes evolved in the Muslim world as a form of religious and social protest. By deliberately embracing a variety of unconventional and socially liminal practices, they inverted social hierarchies and explicitly violated Islamic law. Their peripatetic lifestyle and voluntary acts of material divestment, such as living on the streets, sleeping on the ground or sheltering in graveyards, suggested a descent to animal levels of poverty. Those who chose this particular antinomian mode of life and the associated bodily, social, and spiritual disciplines, were often distinguished by bare feet, garments of animal skins, even dirt-caked nakedness, features which served as markers of wild social transcendence. By thus rejecting the demands of society on their minds and bodies, deviant dervishes remained entirely outside the normal social world. This distinct marginal space also served as an experimental theatre for testing and blurring boundaries between humans and other forms of being. Their peripatetic lifestyle and voluntary acts of material divestment mirrored the harsh living conditions of wild animals. The symbolic appropriation of animals and control over them was, therefore, of considerable importance. This paper pays particular attention to the associated vocabulary of antinomian existence in which animals play a pivotal role as agents of transformation. The concomitant display of animal attributes reflects the dervishes! own animal-like force. It acts not only as a means of liberation and a critique of social controls, but, above all, it serves as a prime tool in the dramatic attempts to discipline, control and tame their own “animal souls”.
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